I 


A  PRACTICAL  TREATISE 


ON   THE 


MANUFACTURE  OF  VINEGAR  AND  ACETATES, 
CIDER,  AND  FRUIT-WINES. 


A  PRACTICAL  TREATISE 


ON 


PRESERVATION  OF  FRUITS  AND  VEGETABLES  BY 
CANNING  AND  EVAPORATION; 


PREPARATION  OF  FRUIT-BUTTERS,  JELLIES,  MARMALADES, 
CATCHUPS,  PICKLES,  MUSTARDS,  ETC. 


EDITED  FROM  VARIOUS  SOURCES, 


BY 

WILLIAM  T.  BRANOT, 

ONE   OF   THE    EDITORS   OF   "THE   TECHNO-CHEMICAL   EECEIPT   BOOK." 


ILLUSTRATED    BY    SEVENTY-NINE    ENGRAVINGS. 


PHILADELPHIA  : 
HENRY   CAREY   BAIRD   &   CO., 

INDUSTRIAL  PUBLISHERS,  BOOKSELLERS,  AND  IMPORTERS, 
810  WALNUT  STREET. 

LONDON  : 

SAMPSON  LOW,  MARSTON,  SEARLE  &  RIVINGTON,  LIMITED, 
ST.  DUNSTAN'S  HOUSE,  FETTER  LANE,  FLEET  STREET,  E.  c. 

1890. 


71 


COPYRIGHT  BY 
HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD  &  CO. 

1889. 


PRINTED  AT  THB  COLLINS  PRINTING  HOUSE, 

705  Jayne  Street, 
PHILADELPHIA,  U.  S.  A. 


0* 

VII7ERSITT 


PREFACE. 


IT  is  quite  unnecessary  here  to  enlarge  upon  the  prominence 
and  the  commercial  value  of  the  products  of  the  various  branches 
of  industry  treated  of  in  this  volume,  since  they  are  indispensable 
requisites  as  well  in  domestic  economy  as  in  the  arts.  But  not- 
withstanding the  great  importance  of  .these  subjects,  little  reliable 
information  in  regard  to  them  is  found  in  our  technical  literature, 
and  that  little  is  so  widely  scattered  as  to  make  it  almost  inac- 
cessible to  most  manufacturers. 

Of  all  the  branches  of  industry  based  upon  chemical  processes, 
the  manufacture  of  vinegar  has  made  the  least  progress,  and  con- 
sequently disturbances  and  large  losses  of  material  are  here  of 
much  more  frequent  occurrence  than  in  other  fermenting  indus- 
tries which  are  carried  on  in  accordance  with  established  rules, 
whose  correctness  has  been  ascertained  by  many  experiments. 

With  few  exceptions  there  are  no  works  in  the  English  lan- 
guage in  which  an  attempt  has  been  made  to  establish  the  manu- 
facture of  vinegar  upon  a  rational  basis,  and  in  accordance  with 
the  laws  of  nature  as  regards  the  chemical  as  well  as  the  physi- 
cal processes.  To  attain  this  object  as  nearly  as  possible  has 
been  the  aim  in  the  preparation  of  the  portion  of  this  volume 
relating  to  vinegar.  Since  the  physical  processes,  especially  the 
exact  maintenance  of  determined  temperatures  and  the  production 


yi  PREFACE. 

of  a  change  of  air  corresponding  to  the  chemical  processes,  play 
an  important  role  in  the  manufacture  of  vinegar,  the  section  re- 
lating to  this  subject  has  been  very  fully  treated. 

To  the  manufacture  of  wine-vinegar  a  space  corresponding  to 
the  importance  of  the  subject  has  been  devoted.  Wine-vinegar 
is  undoubtedly  the  most  valuable  product  of  the  vinegar  industry, 
and  its  fabrication  might  be  made  specially  advantageous  in  this 
country,  since  in  California  and  other  States  a  vast  amount  of 
material  could  thus  be  profitably  utilized,  which  otherwise  would 
go  to  waste.  On  account  of  its  great  interest  considerable  space 
has  been  devoted  to  the  manufacture  of  acetic  acid  from  wood, 
and  of  acetates,  especially  those  which  are  used  for  technical 
purposes. 

As  regards  the  manufacture  of  cider  and  fruit-wines,  the 
preservation  of  fruit,  etc.,  much  time  and  care  have  been  devoted 
to  the  gathering  of  information  from  all  available  and  widely- 
scattered  sources  in  order  to  do  justice  to  the  great  and  constantly 
growing  fruit  industry  of  this  country.  Special  attention  has 
been  paid  to  evaporation,  since  this  process  is  likely  to  supersede 
all  other  modes  of  drying  fruit. 

The  volume  is  divided  into  three  parts,  upon  each  of  which  a 
few  observations  are  offered. 

Part  I.  treats  of  the  Manufacture  of  Vinegar.  It  is  chiefly 
based  upon  the  German  works,  Die  Schnell-Essig  Fabrication 
und  die  Fabrication  von  Weine&dg,  by  Dr.  Josef  Bersch,  and 
Lehrbuch  der  Essigfabrikation,  by  Dr.  Paul  Bronner.  Both  are 
works  of  acknowledged  authority,  in  which  the  authors  have 
brought  together  the  results  of  their  experience  of  many  years. 


PREFACE.  VI 1 

Part  II.  contains  the  Manufacture  of  Cider  and  Fruit-wines, 
and  Part  III.  Canning  and  Evaporating  of  Fruit,  etc.  For  in- 
formation on  these  subjects  we  are  indebted  to  the  French  work, 
Culture  du  Pommier  d  Cidre,  Fabrication  du  Cidre,  etc.,  by  Jules 
Nanot,  and  to  the  German  works,  Die  Hebung  der  Obstverwerth- 
ung  und  des  Obstbaues,  by  Heinrich  Semler,  and  Die  Obstwein- 
kunde,  by  Dr.  N.  Graeger.  Wherever  required,  the  information 
derived  from  the  above  works  has  been  supplemented  by  Amer- 
ican processes. 

The  editor  also  acknowledges  his  indebtedness  to  numerous 
American  and  English  authors  for  valuable  information,  due 
credit  for  which  has  been  given  whenever  possible. 

A  copious  table  of  contents  as  well  as  a  very  full  index  will 
render  reference  to  any  subject  in  the  book  prompt  and  easy, 
and  the  whole  treatise  is  submitted  to  the  public  with  a  feeling 
of  confidence  as  to  its  value  and  usefulness. 

WILLIAM  T.  BEANNT. 


PHILADELPHIA,  Sept.  26,  1889. 


CONTENTS. 


PART  I. 

THE  MANUFACTURE  OF  VINEGAR. 
CHAPTER    I. 

INTRODUCTION. 

PAGE 

Ordinary  vinegar,  what  it  is ;  The  discovery  of  vinegar ;  Use  of  vinegar 
as  a  medicine  by  Hippocrates ;  Early  knowledge  of  the  property  of 
vinegar  of  dissolving  calcareous  earths  ;  The  dissolving  of  large  pearls 
in  vinegar  by  Cleopatra  .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .17 

The  use  of  vinegar  by  Hannibal  for  dissolving  rocks  ;  No  early  definite 
knowledge  of  the  cause  of  the  production  of  vinegar;  The  process 
of  increasing  the  strength  of  wine-vinegar  made  known  by  Gerber  in 
the   eighth  century;  Other  historical  data  regarding  vinegar;  The 
first  preparation  of  acetic  acid  in  a  pure  state  and  the  discovery  of 
the  property  of  very  strong  acetic  acid  to  crystallize  at  a  low  temper- 
ature ;  Historical  data  regarding  the  formation  of  an  acid  body  in  the 
dry  distillation  of  wood  ;  Determination  of  the  exact  chemical  consti- 
tution of  acetic  acid  by  Berzelius  and  that  of  alcohol  by  Saussure ; 
Historical  data  relating  to  the  generation  of  acetic  acid     .         .         .18 
The  introduction  of  the  quick  process  of  manufacturing  vinegar,  in  1823, 
by  Schiitzenbach ;   A  method  of  manufacturing  vinegar  from  wine 
made  known  by  Boerhaave ;  ScMitzenbach's  original  plan  of  working 
still  in  use  in  some  localities  ;  Necessity  of  progress  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  vinegar  by  the  quick  process;  The  constantly  increasing  diffi- 
culties in  the  manufacture  of  vinegar  from  alcohol    .         .         .         .19 

Great  purity  of  the  acetic  acid  at  present  produced  from  wood ;  Use  of 
"vinegar  essence"  for  pickling,  etc. ;   Difference  between  the  acetic 
acid  produced  from  wood  and  vinegar  prepared   from  various  sub- 
stances  ,.......••••       20 

Principal  defects  in  manufacturing  vinegar  by  the  quick  process  in  general 
use  ...       21 


X  CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER  II. 

THEORY    OF    THE    FORMATION    OF    VINEGAR. 

PAGE 

Explanation  of  the  chemical  processes  by  which  acetic  acid  in  large 
quantities  is  formed  .........  21 

Liebig's  theory  of  the  formation  of  vinegar ;  The  formation  of  vinegar 
due  to  a  chemico-physiological  process  ......  22 

Pasteur's  theory  of  the  formation  of  vinegar;  Difference  between 
Pasteur's  and  Nageli's  views;  Nomenclature  of  organisms  producing 
fermentation  ;  The  vinegar  or  acetous  ferment ;  Origin  of  the  acetic 
acid  formed  in  alcoholic  fermentation  ......  23 

Occurrence  of  acetic  acid  in  nature  ;  Formation  of  acetic  acid  by  chemi- 
cal processes ;  Formation  of  acetic  acid  by  the  action  of  very  finely 
divided  platinum  upon  alcohol,  illustrated  .....  24 

Development  of  "  mother  of  vinegar"         ......        25 

Pasteur's  examination  of  the  relations  of  the  mother  of  vinegar  to  the 
formation  of  vinegar;  The  botanical  nature  of  the  organisms  causing 
the  formation  of  vinegar ;  Disease-causing  bacteria  ...  26 

What  constitutes  the  entire  art  of  the  manufacture  of  vinegar      .          .        27 

CHAPTER  III. 

THE   VINEGAR   FERMENT    AND   ITS   CONDITIONS   OF    LIFE. 

The  vinegar  ferment,  its  origin  and  distribution ;  Fluid  especially 
adapted  for  its  nourishment 27 

Experiment  showing  the  conversion  of  wine  into  vinegar  by  the  vinegar 
ferment,  with  illustration  ........  28 

Duration  of  life  of  the  vinegar  ferment ;  Difference  between  the  living 
and  dead  ferment  as  seen  under  the  microscope ;  Requirements  of 
the  vinegar  ferment  for  its  augmentation  .  .  .  .  .29 

Results  of  the  withdrawal  of  oxygen  from  the  vinegar  ferment ;  Ex- 
periment showing  the  great  rapidity  of  the  augmentation  of  the 
vinegar  bacteria  ;  Nourishing  conditions  of  the  vinegar  ferment  .  30 

Factors  required  for  the  settlement  of  the  vinegar  bacteria  upon  a  fluid 
and  for  their  vigorous  augmentation  ;  Composition  of  the  nourishing 
fluid ;  A  large  content  of  alcohol  in  the  nourishing  fluid  detrimental 
to  the  vegetation  of  the  vinegar  ferment ;  Experiment  showing  that 
the  vinegar  ferment  cannot  live  in  dilute  alcohol  alone  .  .  .31 

The  preparation  of  a  fluid  containing  all  the  substances  essential  to  the 
nourishment  of  the  ferment ;  Sensitiveness  of  the  vinegar  ferment  to 
sudden  changes  in  the  composition  of  the  fluids  upon  which  it  lives  ; 
The  process  of  nourishment  of  the  vinegar  ferment  .  .  .32 

Supply  of  air  required  by  the  vinegar  ferment ;  Limits  of  temperature 
at  which  the  augmentation  of  the  ferment  and  its  vinegar-forming 


CONTENTS.  XI 

PAGE 

activity  are  greatest ;  Action  of  the  ferment  when  exposed  to  high 

and  low  temperatures  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .33 

Difficulty  of  rearing  the  vinegar  ferment  upon  a  cold  fluid  ;  Reason  why 
acetous  degeneration  is  not  known  in  cold  wine  cellars  ;  Reasons  for 
the  ready  occurrence  of  disturbances  in  the  formation  of  vinegar  at  a 
high  temperature  ;  Mother  of  vinegar ;  Origin  of  the  term  .  .  34 

Occurrence,  appearance,  and  growth  of  mother  of  vinegar ;  Different 
opinions  as  to  the  nature  of  mother  of  vinegar  .  .  .  .35 

Composition  of  the  mother  of  vinegar  according  to  Mulder  and  R.  D. 
Thomson ;  Substances  which  participate  in  the  formation  of  mother 
of  vinegar,  illustrated  by  an  experiment ;  How  the  formation  of 
mother  of  vinegar  can  be  successfully  attained  .  .  .  ,36 

General  occurrence  of  mother  of  vinegar  in  young  wine ;  Erroneous 
opinion  as  to  the  part  mother  of  vinegar  takes  in  the  formation  of 
vinegar;  Summary  of  the  theoretical  conditions  of  the  formation  of 
vinegar  of  importance  to  the  manufacturer  .  .  .  .  .37 

CHAPTER  IV. 

PRODUCTS  OF  ACETOUS  FERMENTATION. 

The  regular  augmentation  of  the  ferment  the  main  point  of  the  entire 
fabrication  ;  Occurrence  of  loss  of  alcohol  in  the  fabrication  .  .  38 

Bodies,  besides  alcohol  and  carbonic  acid,  formed  in  the  vinous  fermen- 
tation ;  Characteristic  properties  imparted  to  alcohol  by  fusel  oils ; 
Aromatic  substances  which  reach  the  vinegar  through  the  conversion 
of  fusel  oils;  Acetic  aldehyde  or  acetaldehyde  .  .  .  .39 

Preparation  and  constitution  of  pure  aldehyde ;  Acetal ;  Preparation 
of  acetal 40 

Composition  and  nature  of  pure  acetal         .          .         .          .          .         .41 

Acetic  acid ;  Glacial  acetic  acid ;  Properties  of  acetic  acid ;  Peculiar 
behavior  of  mixtures  of  acetic  acid  and  water  in  regard  to  their 
specific  gravity 42 

Difference  in  the  determinations  of  specific  gravities  of  acetic  acid  with 
a  varying  content  of  water  ;  Uses  of  highly  concentrated  acetic  acid  ; 
Composition  of  acetic  acid  ........  43 

Theoretical  yields  of  acetic  acid ;  Theoretical  and  practical  yields,  what 
they  are ;  Mariner  of  calculating  the  theoretical  yield  of  acetic  acid 
from  alcohol  ...........  44 

Quantity  of  oxygen  consumed  in  the  formation  of  vinegar     ...       45 

Quantity  of  alcohol  which  can  be  daily  converted  into  vinegar  by  a  vine- 
gar generator  ;  Calculation  of  the  quantity  of  heat  liberated  by  the 
conversion  of  alcohol  into  acetic  acid ;  What  the  practical  manufac- 
turer can  learn  from  theoretical  explanations 46 


Xll  CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

Proof  that  the  generators  now  in  use  are  deficient ;  The  optimum  tem- 
perature, what  is  meant  by  it ;  Loss  of  alcohol  and  acetic  acid  by 
evaporation  and  its  reduction  to  a  minimum  .  .  .  .  .47 

Conditions  on  which  the  most  advantageous  manner  of  working  depends; 
Yields  of  acetic  acid  obtained  in  practice ;  Unavoidable  losses  in  a 
vinegar  factory  ;  Defectiveness  of  the  processes  in  general  use  and 
the  necessity  for  reformation  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .48 

Comparison  of  a  vinegar  generator  to  a  furnace    .         .         .         .         .49 

CHAPTER  Y. 

METHODS  OF   FABRICATION   OF   VINEGAR. 

Reasons  for  not  commencing  the  description  of  the  various  methods  of 
fabrication  of  vinegar  with  the  oldest  and  most  simple  method  known, 
viz.,  the  fabrication  of  vinegar  from  wine  ;  Why  we  can  speak  of 
grain  and  malt  vinegars  .........  50 

Alcohol  the  ultimate  material  for  the  fabrication  of  vinegar ;  The  slow 
and  quick  processes  of  fabrication ;  Modifications  in  the  old  process 
according  to  the  materials  used  .  .  .  .  .  .  .51 

Difference  in  the  properties  of  vinegar  derived  from  various  sources      .       52 

CHAPTER  VI. 

QUICK  PROCESS   OF   FABRICATION   OF   VINEGAR. 

Invention  of  Schutzenbach's  and  analagous  processes ;  On  what  the 
principle  involved  depends 52 

Appropriateness  of  the  term  " quick  process;"  Comparison  of  the 
generator  or  "graduator"  to  a  furnace  ;  Difficulty  of  conveying  the 
requisite  amount  of  air  to  the  generator  ......  53 

Arrangement  of  the  generators ;  The  best  form  of  the  generator,  with 
illustration 54 

Variation  in  the  dimensions  of  the  generators ;  Disadvantages  of  small 
and  of  large  generators  ........  55 

Erroneous  opinions  in  regard  to  the  manufacture  of  strong  vinegar;  Di- 
mensions of  the  most  suitable  generators  ;  Cover  of  the  generator, 
with  illustration 56 

Disadvantage  of  a  number  of  obliquely  bored  apertures  below  the  false 
bottom,  with  illustration  •••....  57 

Different  forms  of  generator ;  Self-acting  discharge  arrangement,  with 
illustration  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .58 

Disadvantage  of  the  self-acting  discharge  arrangement  and  substitute 
for  it ;  Arrangement  of  the  disk  or  false  bottom  of  the  generator, 
with  illustration  . 59 


CONTENTS.  xiii 

PAGE 

Arrangement  for  regulating  the  influx  of  air  from  below,  with  illustra- 
tion   60 

Modification  of  the  disk,  with  illustration ;  The  tilting  trough,  with 
illustrations  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .61 

Arrangement  and  manner  of  working  of  the  tilting  trough  ;  The  sparger 
described  and  illustrated  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .62 

The  principal  requisite  of  the  correct  working  of  the  sparger,  with  illus- 
tration ;  Difficulties  overcome  by  the  use  of  the  sparger  ...  64 

A  thermometer  an  indispensable  adjunct  to  a  generator;  Manner  of 
locating  the  thermometer ;  Filling  of  the  generators ;  Materials  used 
for  filling  the  generators  ;  Advantages  of  beechwood  shavings  .  65 

Preparation  of  beech  shavings  ;  Volume  represented  by  a  shaving  in  a 
rolled  state ;  Space  required  for  each  shaving  ;  Size  of  the  space  to 
be  filled  with  shavings  in  a  generator  ;  Number  of  shavings  required 
to  fill  this  space  ;  Surface  of  shavings  active  in  the  formation  of  vine- 
gar ;  Steaming  of  the  shavings  ' 66 

Drying  of  the  shavings  ;   Swelling  of  the  shavings        .         .         .          .67 

Manner  of  placing  the  shavings  in  the  generators ;  Advantage  of  hav- 
ing all  the  generators  of  the  same  size 68 

CHAPTER  VII. 

ARRANGEMENT   OF   A   VINEGAR   FACTORY. 

Unsuitableness  of  the  arrangement  of  the  manufacturing  rooms  formerly 
customary ;  The  principal  requisites  for  a  suitable  arrangement  of  the 
factory 68 

Arrangement  of  the  walls,  windows,  doors,  and  floor  of  the  factory ; 
Height  of  the  workroom :  Heating  of  the  workroom ;  The  best 
arrangement  where  stoves  are  used ;  Heating  apparatus  for  large 
factories  described  and  illustrated  .  .  .  .  .  .  .69 

Necessity  for  thermometers  in  the  workroom  ;  The  maximum  electrical 
thermometer  described  and  illustrated  ......  71 

The  minimum  electrical  thermometer ;  Location  of  the  reservoirs  in 
a  factory  arranged  according  to  the  automatic  system  .  .  .72 

CHAPTER  VIII. 

ARTIFICIAL   VENTILATION    OF    THE   VINEGAR   GENERATORS. 

The  English  process  of  sucking  a  current  of  air  from  above  to  below 
through  every  generator,    with  illustrations ;    Incorrectness  of  this    * 
process  .  73 

The  principal  reason  advanced  for  the  use  of  a  current  of  air  from  above 
to  below  ...  74 


xiv  CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

Schulze's   ventilating  apparatus,    with    illustrations;    Description  of 

Sehulze's  generator .75 

Objections  to  Schul/e's  apparatus        ....  76 

Generators  with  constant  ventilation  and  condensation ;  The  object  of 

special  ventilating  contrivances  ;  Ventilating  apparatus  according  to 

Bersch,  described  and  illustrated      .....  .77 

Condensing  apparatus,  described  and  illustrated    ...  .78 

Proposed  method  of  regaining  the  vapors  ;   Objection  to  this  method  .       80 

CHAPTER  IX. 

AUTOMATIC    VINEGAR   APPARATUS. 

The  principal  work  which  has  to  be  performed  in  a  vinegar  factory       .       80 
Disadvantages  of  pouring  at  stated  intervals  the  alcoholic  fluid  into  the 
generators        ...........       81 

Advantages  to  be  derived  from  the  use  of  simple  automatic  contrivances  ; 
Division   of  continuously  working  apparatus  into  two  principal  sys- 
tems ;   Continuously  working  apparatus — the  terrace  system      .          .        82 
A  factory  arranged  according  to  the  terrace  system  described  and  illus- 
trated      83 

Objections  to  the  terrace  system 84 

Advantages  of  the  group  system ;  Mode  of  distributing  the  alcoholic 

liquid  into  each  generator  in  the  terrace  system         .         ...         .85 
Periodically  working  apparatus — the  three-group  system  ;  Modification 

of  the  tilting  trough,  described  and  illustrated 87 

The  siphon  barrel,  described  and  illustrated 88 

The  bell-siphon,  described  and  illustrated 89 

Example  for  calculating  the  space  required  beneath  the  lath-bottom  of 
the  generator  for  the  reception  of  the  fluid  ;   Arrangement  of  a  vinegar 
factory  working  according  to  the  automatic  principle         ...       90 
Manner  of  arranging  the  generators  in  groups  ;  Height  of  the  actual 
work-room  ;   Location  of  the  reservoir  and  of  the  collecting  vessels  ; 
Description  of  a  periodically  working  establishment  with  24  generators       91 
Manner  of  working  in  such  an  establishment        .....      93 
Material  for  metallic  vessels  used  in  the  factory  ;   Location  of  the  pump  ; 
Advantage  of  heating  the  alcoholic  liquid  before  its  introduction  into 
the  generators  ;   Apparatus  for  heating  the  alcoholic  liquid  described 
and  illustrated         ••.......  94 

CHAPTER  X. 

OPERATIONS   IN    A    VINEGAR   FACTORY. 

Acidulation  of  the  generators  ;  Object  of  acidulation  ;  Manner  of  {undu- 
lation ;  Quantities  of  vinegar  required  for  complete  acidulation  96 


CONTENTS.  xy 

Example  illustrating  the  gradual  commencement  of  the  regular  fabrica- 
tion ;  Accelerated  acidulation  ;  Objection  to  the  ordinary  method  of 
accidulation  ...... 

Percentage  of  water  in  the  shavings  which  has  to  be  replaced  in  the  ordi- 
nary method  of  acidulation  by  vinegar  ;  How  the  removal  of  water 
from  the  shavings  and  its  substitution  by  vinegar  are  effected;  Time 
required  for  acidulation  by  the  old  method ;  Loss  of  vinegar  in  the 
old  method  of  acidulation  ;  Advantage  and  mode  of  using  artificially 
dried  shavings ;  Time  required  for  acidulation  with  artificially  dried 
shavings  ........  9# 

Induction  of  the  operation  with  artificially  raised  vinegar  ferment; 
"  Pure  cultivation"  of  the  vinegar  ferment 99 

Preparation  and  treatment  of  fluids  for  the  pure  cultivation  of  vinegar 
ferment  ........  10o 

Preparation  of  nourishing  fluid  from  beer  ;  Manner  of  cultivating  vine- 
gar ferment  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .101 

Abortive  cultivation  of  vinegar  ferment  with  illustrations  ;  Transfer  of 
the  pure  cultivation  of  vinegar  ferment  to  the  generators  .  .  102 

Prevention  of  disturbances  which  are  caused  by  suddenly  changing  the 
nourishing  fluid  of  the  vinegar  ferment 103 


CHAPTER  XI. 

PREPARATION    OF    THE    ALCOHOLIC   LIQUID. 

Definition  of  the  term  "alcoholic  liquid;"  Reason  why  a  content  of 
vinegar  in  the  alcoholic  liquid  exerts  a  favorable  effect  upon  the  forma- 
tion of  vinegar  ;  Proof  that  the  alcoholic  liquid  does  not  require  any 
considerable  quantity  of  acetic  acid  for  its  conversion  into  vinegar  .  104 

Reasons  why  it  is  preferable  to  gradually  increase  the  content  of  alcohol 
in  the  alcoholic  liquid  instead  of  at  once  adding  the  total  amount  .  105 

Experiment  illlustrating  the  destruction  of  acetic  acid  by  (he  vinegar 
ferment  in  the  absence  of  alcohol ;  Limit  of  percentage  of  acetic  acid 
vinegar  should  have  ;  Conditions  on  which  the  advantageous  fabrica- 
tion of  high-graded  or  weak  vinegar  depends  . 

Quantities  of  beer  and  of  finished  vinegar  to  be  added  to  the  alcoholic 
liquid  ;  Table  showing  the  theoretical  yield  of  acetic  acid  from  alcohol  107 

Reasons  why  practically  less  vinegar  with  a  smaller  percentage  of  acetic 
anhydride  is  obtained  ;  Table  showing  the  content  of  alcohol  required 
in  an  alcoholic  liquid  for  the  production  of  vinegar  with  a  certain  con- 
tent of  acetic  acid  .  .  .  .*.••••• 

Calculation  for  finding  the  number  of  gallons  of  water  which  have  tc 
added  to  alcohol  of  known  strength  in  order  to  obtain  an  alcoholi 
liquid  with  the  desired  percentage  of  alcohol ;  Examples  of  the  c 
position  of  alcoholic  liquid        ..•••• 


XV111  CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER  XIY. 

METHOD   OF    THE  FABRICATION   OF    VINEGAR   IN    APPARATUS   OF 

SPECIAL    CONSTRUCTION. 

PAGE 

Inutility  of  most  inventions  for  overcoming  the  frequent  disturbances  in 
the  working  of  a  factory  not  provided  with  suitable  heating  and  venti- 
lating arrangements         .........     139 

Singer's  vinegar  generator,  illustrated  and  described    ....     140 

Alirhaelis's  rotary  vinegar  generator     .......     142 

Fabrication  of  vinegar  with  the  assistance  of  platinum  black,  and  the 
apparatus  used         ..........     143 

CHAPTER  XV. 

FURTHER   TREATMENT    OF    FRESHLY-PREPARED   VINEGAR. 

The  odor  of  freshly- prepared  vinegar  and  on  what  it  depends ;  Filling 
of  the  barrels ;  The  reciprocal  action  which  takes  place  between  the     * 
air  and  the  vinegar  .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .144 

Means  for  improving  the  odor  of  vinegar;  Manner  of  drawing  off  the 

vinegar  from  the  sediment  in  the  barrel,  with  illustration  .         .145 

The  storing  of  vinegar         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .146 

Processes  which  take  place  during  storing  .         .         .         .         .147 

Advisability  of  filtering  the  vinegar;  Heating  the  vinegar;  Apparatus 
for  heating  the  vinegar,  illustrated  and  described       ....     148 

Filtration  of  the  vinegar ;  Filter  for  vinegar,  illustrated  and  described  .     150 
Bag-filter  for  filtering  vinegar  under  pressure,  illustrated  and  described     151 

Sulphuring  of  vinegar 152 

Fining  of  vinegar ;  Coloring  vinegar  ....  153 

Preparation  of  caramel  or  burnt  sugar          ....  154 

CHAPTER  XYI. 

PREPARATION   OF    VINEGAR   FROM    VARIOUS   MATERIALS. 
The  formation  of  diastase ;  How  vinegar  can  be  prepared  from  starch .     154 
How  the  various  kinds  of  vinegar  might  be  designated  according  to  the 

elementary  material  used  ;  Reasons  why  beer-wort  does  not  seem  a 

suitable  material  for  vinegar    .... 
Use   of  fermented  whisky-mashes  for   the   manufacture   of  vinegar; 

Manufacture  of  vinegar  from  malt  and  grain  ;  Combination  of  "the 

manufacture  of  compressed  yeast  with  that  of  vinegar       .  156 

The  most  suitable  variety  of  malt  for  the  preparation  of  vinegar*   The 

constitution  of  malt         .... 

•          •          .157 


CONTENTS.  XIX 

PAGE 

The  theoretical  part  in  mashing;  Effective  diastase;  After-effect  of 
the  diastase;  Calculation  of  the  yield  of  acetic-acid  which  can  be 
obtained  from  a  given  quantity  of  malt  .  .  .  .  .  .158 

Use  of  a  mixture  of  malt  and-unmalted  grain  ;  Doughing  in  the  ground 
malt;  Mashing  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .159 

The  percentage  of  alcohol  contained    in  mashes  after  fermentation; 

Setting  the  rnash  with  yeast;   Preparation  of  compressed  yeast  .     160 

Treatment  of  the  completely  fermented  "ripe  mash"  for  the  fabrica- 
tion of  vinegar ;  Preparation  of  alcoholic  liquid  from  filtered  mash  ; 
Conversion  of  the  fermented  malt  wort  into  vinegar         .          .          .161 

Filtration  of  malt  vinegar  in  refining  or  rape  vessels  ;  "  Rape,"  what  it 
is;  the  manufacture  of  malt  vinegar  by  "fielding";  Utilization  of 
sour  ale  and  beer  for  vinegar  .  .  .  .  .  .  .162 

Preparation  of  vinegar  from  sugar  beets  ;  Vinegar  from  sugar,  fruits, 
and  berries  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .163 

Receipts  for  making  vinegar  by  Cadet-Gassicourt  and  Doebereiner ; 
Preparation  of  vinegar  on  a  small  scale  for  domestic  use  .  .164 

Table  showing  the  average  content  of  sugar  and  free  acid  in  the  most 
common  varieties  of  fruits  ;  Treatment  of  currant  juice  for  the  prepa- 
ration of  vinegar  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .165 

Preparation  of  vinegar  from  bilberries ;  Vinegar  from  berries ;  Cider 
vinegar  ...........  166 

Contrivance  for  making  cider  vinegar  described  by  S.  E.  Todd         .     167 

Vinegar  from  apple-pomace 168 

CHAPTER  XVII. 

PREPARATION    OF    VINEGAR    SPECIALTIES. 

Groups  of  specialties  ;  Perfumed  vinegars 168 

Aromatized  vinegar;  Manner  of  dissolving  volatile  oils  in  vinegar        .     169 
Preparation  of  aromatized  vinegars     .         .          .          .          .         .          .170 

Toilet  vinegars;  Mohr's  volatile  spirits  of  wine ;  Aromatic  vinegar; 
Henry's  vinegar ;  Vinaigre  de  quatre  voleurs  ;  Hygienic  or  preven- 
tive vinegar ;  Cosmetic  vinegar  .171 

Table  vinegars  ;  Anise  vinegar ;   Anchovy  vinegar ;  Tarragon  vinegar ; 

Compound  Tarragon  vinegar ;  Effervescing  vinegar  .         .          .172 

Herb  vinegar ;  Pineapple  vinegar ;    Celery  vinegar ;   Clove  vinegar ; 

Mustard  vinegar  ;  Lovage  vinegar  ;  Preparation  of  acetic  ether         .     1 73 
Preparation  of  a  fluid  for  imparting  bouquet  to  table  vinegar ;  Compo- 
sition of  pure  acetic  ether 1 74 


XX 11  CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

Decomposition  of  wood  at  a  higher  temperature ;  Cause  of  the  decom- 
position of  wood  ;  Reason  why  a  large  amount  of  acetic  acid  is  pro- 
duced during  the  destructive  distillation  of  wood  .  .  .  .219 

Substances  given  off  during  the  destructive  distillation  of  wood  ;  Actual 
facts  observed  in  the  distillation  of  wood  ;  Distillation  of  wood  ;  Re- 
torts used  in  the  distillation  of  wood;  Form  of  the  retorts  .  .  220 

Dimensions  of  the  retorts  ;  Position  of  the  retorts ;  Retorts  used  in 
France  .........  221 

Retorts  used  in  England  and  Germany  ;  Vertical  retorts  ;  Kestner's 
apparatus,  illustrated  and  described  ....  222 

Movable  retorts,  illustrated  and  described  ;  Modification  of  movable  re- 
torts, illustrated  and  described 223 

Horizontal  retorts,  illustrated  and  described         ....  225 

Apparatus  for  abstracting  the  charcoal  from  the  carbonizing  cylinders ; 
Condensers;  Kestner's  apparatus,  illustrated  and  described  .  227 

Collection  of  the  gases  in  a  gasometer;  Vincent's  plan  for  cooling  the 
current  of  gas  and  rendering  the  vapors  of  acetic  acid  harmless,  Illus- 
trated and  described 228 

Dimensions  for  a  condenser  for  four  retorts,  by  Gillot ;  Most  suitable 
varieties  of  wood  for  the  production  of  wood- vinegar ;  Removal  of 
the  bark  from  the  wood  ... 

Charcoal;  Composition  of  charcoal  ;  Processes  tak  ing'  place'  by  h'eatina 
the  wood  in  the  retorts;  Charbon  roux  or  terrified  charcoal-  Red 
wood  (roasted  wood,  boix  roux)  and  its  composition ;  Charcoals  avail- 
able for  technical  purposes 

Quantity  of  charcoal  obtained  at  various  temperatures  j  Influence  of  the 
degree  of  carbonization  and  of  the  variety  of  wood  upon  the  yield  of 
charcoal;  Variation  in  the  elementary  composition  of  charcoal  as 
found  by  Violette  . 

im'S'":;  Properties  of 'tar  and  of  woocU 


Constituents  of  wood-vinegar 

Woo.1  spirit  (methyl  aleohol),  CH.O,  and  it's  propertied  and  uses  ;'  Ace'     *** 

tone  or  d.methyl  kctone  (C3H6O)  and  its  properties 
Determ.nat.on  of  the  strength  of  Wood-vi,,egar  ;  Mohr's  me'thod  ' 
L.  Rieffer's  method    ...  -235 

Working  up  the  wood-vinegar ;  Methods  by"  which  this' is  effected'  Dis'     ^ 

tillation  of  wood-vinegar,  described  and  illustrated 
The  recreation  of  wood-vinegar,  described  and  illustrated ' 

Scation  of  wood-vinegar  according  to  Terreil  and  Chateau  -  lathe's 

method  for  the  purification  of  wood- vinegar 
Acetic  acid  for  technical  purposes 

Preparation  of  crude  calcium  acetate  '         '         '         '     24° 

.     241 
and  pure  sodium 

242 


CONTENTS.  XX111 

PAGE 

Apparatus  for  roasting  the  pale  brown  sodium  acetate,  illustrated  and 
described  ;  Crystallizing  vessels,  illustrated  and  described  .  .  244 

Mollerat's  method  of  preparing  sodium  acetate 245 

Acids,  besides  acetic  acid,  which  occur  in  wood- vinegar  according  to 
Barr6 246 

Vincent's  method  of  decomposing  the  mother-lye  ;  Manner  of  obtaining 
wood-spirit  (methyl  alcohol)  ;  Composition  of  crude  wood-spirit; 
Processes  which  take  place  in  digesting  crude  wood-spirit  with  slaked 
lime  ............  247 

Apparatus  for  distilling  the  digested  mixture,  illustrated  and  described     248 

Further  purification  of  wood-spirit;  Purification  of  wood-spirit  on  a 
small  scale  ;  Examination  of  commercial  wood-spirit  .  .  .  249 

Yield  of  charcoal,  wood-vinegar,  and  wood-spirit  as  well  as  of  tar; 
Stoltze's  experiments  on  the  products  obtained  from  the  distillation 
of  several  varieties  of  wood  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .250 

Percentage  of  acetic  anhydride  which,  according  to  Gillot,  can  be  ob- 
tained from  hard  wood  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .251 

Results  obtained  by  Assmus  in  manufacturing  on  a  large  scale  ;  Rothe's 
experience  in  obtaining  acetic  acid  and  other  products  from  birch  ; 
Yield  of  salable  methyl  alcohol  according  to  Vincent ;  Description 
of  Halliday's  apparatus 252 

Wood-vinegar  from  saw-dust       ........     253 

CHAPTER  XXII. 

PREPARATION    OF   PURE    CONCENTRATED   ACETIC    ACID. 

Percentage  of  acetic  acid  in  the  strongest  vinegar  which  can  be  pre- 
pared by  the  process  of  fermentation 253 

Advisability  of  increasing  the  strength  of  vinegar  from  alcohol  by  the 
addition  of  concentrated  acetic  acid  from  wood ;  Detection  of  empy- 
reumatic  substances  in  acetic  acid  from  wood ;  Acetic  acid  from  wood 
for  the  preservation  of  fruit,  cucumbers,  etc.  ...  .  254 

Manner  of  obtaining  acetic  acid  from  strong  vinegar;  Stein's  method 
of  increasing  the  boiling  point  of  vinegar 255 

Preparation  of  acetic  acid  from  commercial  acetates  and  from  those  ob- 
tained from  wood- vinegar  ;  Former  method  of  obtaining  glacial  acetic 
acid ;  Principal  acetates  now  used  for  the  preparation  of  acetic  acid ; 
Preparation  of  acetic  acid  from  normal  lead  acetate  (sugar  of  lead)  .  256 

Bucholz's  direction  for  the  preparation  of  acetic  acid  from  lead  acetate ; 
Preparation  of  acetic  acid  without  distillation 257 

Decomposition  of  lead  acetate  by  nitric  acid ;  Calcium  acetate  and  so- 
dium acetate  the  basis  for  the  preparation  of  acetic  acid  on  a  large 
scale  ;  Volckel's  method  of  preparing  acetic  acid  from  calcium  ace- 
tate .  .  .  258 


XXIV  CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

Test  for  ascertaining  the  quantity  of  lime  required  for  rectifying  acetic 
acid 259 

Rectification  of  acetic  acid,  illustrated  and  described  ;  Use  of  the  ace- 
tate prepared  from  crude  wood- vinegar  for  the  preparation  of  acetic 
acid  .  • .•  -  26° 

Reichenbach's  method  of  destroying  empyreumatic  bodies  in  crude  cal- 
cium acetate ;  Schnedermann's  method  ....  •  261 

Preparation  of  acetic  acid  from  sodium  acetate     . 

Yield  of  acetic  acid  from  crystallized  sodium  acetate  ;  Mollerat's  method 
of  preparing  acetic  acid  from  sodium  acetate,  illustrated  and  described  263 

Glacial  acetic  acid  ;   Melsen's  method  of  preparing  glacial  acetic  acid     .     265 

Calcium  chloride  as  a  by-product  in  the  preparation  of  glacial  acetic 
acid  ;  Oil  of  lemon  as  a  test  for  pure  acetic  acid  ;  Properties  of  gla- 
cial acetic  acid  .  .  .  .  .  •  •  •  .  .266 


CHAPTER  XXIII. 

ACETATES  AND   THEIR    MANUFACTURE. 

Constitution  of  acetic  acid  ........     266 

Solubility  of  acetates  ;  Preparation  of  acetates  ;  Potassium  neutral  ace- 
tate  267 

Properties  and  uses  of  potassium  acetate  ;  Potassium  acid  acetate  or 

potassium  diacetate  .........  268 

Sodium  .toetate  ;  Properties  and  uses  of  sodium  acetate  ;  Sacc's  method 

of  preserving  meats  and  vegetables  with  sodium  acetate  .  .  .  269 

Explosive  mixture  prepared  with  the  use  of  sodium  acetate;  Ammo- 
nium acetate,  neutral  acetate  of  ammonia;  Calcium  acetate  .  .  270 

Barium  acetate  ;  Mode  of  obtaining  acetone  from  barium  acetate          .     271 

Strontium  acetate  ;  Magnesium  acetate  ;  Aluminium  acetate  ;  Import- 
ance of  aluminium  acetate  in  calico  printing;  Mode  of  preparing 
aluminium  acetate  for  the  use  of  the  calico  printer  ....  272 

Preparation  of  a  mordant  by  decomposing  alum  by  lead  acetate ;  lle- 
ceipts  for  preparing  red  liquor ;  Crace-Calvert's  recommendation  of 
the  use  of  sulphacetate  of  alumina  for  the  preparation  of  mordant, 
with  formulae 273 

Messrs  Storck  &  Co.'s,  of  Asniferes,  France,  process  for  the  manufac- 
ture of  aluminium  acetate  from  the  phosphate;  Manganese  acetate1 
Preparation  of  manganous  sulphate  .....  274 

Iron  acetates ;   Ferrous  acetate    .......  275 

Properties  and  use  of  ferrous  acetate  ;  Neutral  ferric  acetate  or  sesqui- 
acetate  of  iron  .  •••....  276 

Mode  of  preparing  pure  neutral  ferric  acetate      .         .         .         .  277 

Uses  of  the  acetates  of  iron ;  Chromium  acetates         .         .         .  278 


CONTENTS.  XXV 

PAGE 

Chromous  acetate ;  Chromic  acetate ;  Nickel  acetate  ;  Cobalt  acetate ; 

Zinc  acetate 279 

Acetates  of  copper ;  Cuprous  acetate  ;  Neutral  cupric  acetate,  or  crys- 
tallized verdigris     ..........     280 

Method  of  obtaining  neutral  cupric  acetate  by  double  decomposition    .     281 
Crystallization  of  neutral  cupric  acetate;  Properties  and  uses  of  neutral 
cupric  acetate  ..........     282 

Basic  cupric  acetates ;  Sesquibasic  cupric  acetate ;  Dibasic  cupric  acetate ; 

Tribasic  cupric  acetate  ;  Varieties  of  verdigris  found  in  commerce    .     283 
Manufacture  of  verdigris  in  France      .......     284 

Manufacture  of  verdigris  in  England,  Germany,  and  Sweden  ;  Compo- 
sition of  French  and  English  verdigris  according  to  Philipps  ;  Methods 

of  testing  verdigris  as  to  adulterations 285 

Uses  of  cupric  acetates  ;   Scheele's  green  ;   Schweinfurth  green    .          .     286 
Lead  acetates;  Neutral  acetate  of  lead  (sugar  of  lead)        .         .         .287 
Stein's  method  of  preparing  neutral  acetate  of  lead,  illustrated  and 
described         ...........     288 

Berard's  process  of  preparing  sugar  of  lead          .         .         .          .          .291 

Other  methods  of  preparing  sugar  of  lead  ......     292 

Properties  of  neutral  acetate  of  lead  .          .          .          .          .         .          .293 

Uses  of  sugar  of  lead .         .294 

Basic  lead  acetates  ;  Manufacture  of  white  lead  according  to  the  French 

method  ;  Preparation  of  lead  vinegar  or  extract  of  lead  .         .          .295 
Lead  sesquibasic  acetate,   triplumbic  tetracetate ;    Tribasic  acetate  of 
lead ;    Preparation  of  tribasic  acetate  of  lead  according  to  Pay  en  ; 
Manufacture  of  white  lead  by  the  Clichy  process  and  by  the  Dutch 
process  ;  Sexbasic  acetate  of  lead    .......     296 

Uranium  acetate;  Tin  acetate;  Bismuth  acetate  ;  Mercurous  acetate     t  297 
Mercuric  acetate ;  Silver  acetate          .......     298 


PART  II. 

MANUFACTURE  OF  CIDERS,  FRUIT- WINES,  ETC. 
CHAPTER  XXIV. 

INTRODUCTION. 

Definition  of  the  term  wine  ;  Ingredients  which  are  added  to  artificial 
wines  ;  Ripening  of  fruits  ;  Constituents  of  an  unripe  fruit  .  .  299 

Occurrence  and  behavior  of  pectose  ;  Formation  and  properties  of 
pectine 300 

Properties  of  metapectine ;  Action  and  constitution  of  pectase ;  Pec- 
tous  fermentation  ;  Formation  of  pectosic  acid  ....  301 


CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

Formation  and  properties  of  pectic  acid  ;  Formation  and  properties  of 
metupectic  aeid  .....•••••  302 

Definition  of  the  term  isomeric ;  Development  and  ripening  of  a  fruit 
viewed  as  chemical  process •  303 

Results  of  chemical  researches  into  the  changes  which  fruits  undergo 
during  their  development  and  perfection  .....  304 

Stages  which  a  fruit  passes  through  during  development  and  ripening  .     305 

CHAPTER  XXV. 

FRUITS  AND   THEIR   COMPOSITION. 

Fruits  used  for  the  preparation  of  fruit-wines ;  Compilation  from 
Fresenius  giving  the  average  percentage  of  sugar  in  different  varie- 
ties of  fruit 306 

Compilation  according  to  average  percentage  of  free  acid  ;   Compilation 
according  to  the  proportion  between  acid,  sugar,  pectine,  gum,  etc. ; 
Compilation  according  to  the  proportion  between  water,  soluble,  and 
insoluble  substances          .          .          .          .          .          .          .          .          .307 

Composition  of  the  juice  according  to  its  content  of  sugar,  pectine,  etc. ; 
Content  of  free  acid  in  100  parts  of  juice          .....     308 

Grape-sugar  or  glucose ;   Acids;   Albuminous  substances       .         .         .     309 
Pectous  substances ;  Gum  and  vegetable  mucilage        .         .         .         .310 

Tannin;  Difference  between  pathological  and  physical  tannin      .         .311 
Inorganic  constituents ;   Fermentation  ......      312 

Chief  products  of  vinous  fermentation  ;  Properties  of  absolute  alcohol; 

Succinic  acid  .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .313 

Glycerin;  Carbonic  acid     .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .314 

Quantity  of  carbonic  acid  developed  during  fermentation  ;  Alkaloid  in 
wine  .  315 

CHAPTER  XXVI. 

PRACTICE  OF  THE  PREPARATION  OF  CIDER  AND  FRUIT-WINES. 

Manner  of  gaining  the  juice  or  must  from  the  fruit;  Mr.  W.  O.  Hic- 

kock's  portable  cider  mill  .  .  .  .  (  t  gig 

Apparatus  for  crushing  apples,  illustrated  and  described ;  Davis's  star 

apple  grinder,  illustrated  and  described 317 

Presses;  Manner  of  obtaining  the  juice  from  berries,  etc. ;  Manner  of 

obtaining  the  juice  from  apple-pomace,  etc 318 

44 Farmer's  cider  press,"  illustrated  and  described;  "Extra  power 

cider  press,"  illustrated  and  described  ...  319 

Revolving  platform  of  the  "  extra  power  cider  press,"  illustrated  and 

described .,9n 

.         O  &  \J 

Ferguson's  improved  racks 321 


CONTENTS.  XXV11 

PAGE 

Plain  racks  ;  Willson's  telegraph  wine  and  cider  mill,  illustrated  and 
described          ...........     322 

Apple  elevator,  illustrated  and  described     .          .          .          .         .          .323 

Testing  the  must  as  to  its  content  of  acid  and  sugar  ;  Manner  of  finding 

the  quantity  of  acid 324 

Determination  of  the  sugar  in  must ;  Manner  of  calculating  the  quan- 
tity of  sugar  which  has  to  be  added  to  the  must  to  give  the  wine  the 

desired  content  of  alcohol 326 

Glucose 327 

Properties  of  commercial  glucose ;  Determination  of  pure  sugar  in  glu- 
cose ;  Anthon's  table  for  finding  the  content  of  anhydrous  grape- 
sugar  in  saturated  solutions  of  glucose  ......  328 

CHAPTER  XXVII. 

CIDER   FROM    APPLES    AND   PEARS. 

Cider  from  apples  ;   "  Champagne  cider"  ;   "  Sparkling  cider"     .          .329 

Reputation  of  Normandy  and  Herefordshire  and  Devonshire  ciders  ; 
Production  of  cider,  in  1883,  in  France  ;  Analyses  of  Brittany  ciders 
by  Rousseau  ;  Analyses  of  pure  ciders  from  different  parts  of  France 
made  in  the  Paris  municipal  laboratory 330 

Average  composition  of  French  ciders  ;  Analyses  of  ciders  by  the 
United  States  Agricultural  Department 331 

Choice  of  the  varieties  of  apples  for  the  manufacture  of  cider        .          .     332 

Test  for  ascertaining  the  content  of  tannin  in  apples  ;  Mixtures  of  apples 
used  in  France  for  the  preparation  of  cider;  Varieties  of  apples 
chiefly  used  in  New  Jersey  for  the  manufacture  of  cider ;  List  of 
apples  recommended  by  P.  Barry  for  cultivation  in  the  Eastern  and 
Middle  States  .  333 

Mode  of  gathering  and  sweating  apples  for  the  preparation  of  cider      .     334 

Reduction  of  the  apples  to  an  impalpable  pulp  ;  Diversity  of  opinion  as 
regards  the  crushing  of  the  seeds  ;  Treatment  of  the  pulp  ;  Pressing  335 

Primitive  custom  of  laying  the  cheese ;  Substitution  of  hair-cloth  and 
cotton  press-cloth  for  straw  in  laying  the  cheese  ;  Manufacture  of 
small  cider  in  France  ;  Extraction  of  the  juice  by  diffusion  .  .  336 

M.  Jules  Nanot's  improved  method  of  extracting  the  juice  by  diffusion, 
illustrated  and  described  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .337 

Expressing  the  juice  by  means  of  the  centrifugal ;  Testing  the  juice  with 
the  must-aerometer  and  its  correction  if  wanting  in  saccharine 
strength ;  Fermentation  of  the  juice 339 

Distinguishing  characteristic  between  the  fermentation  of  wine  and 
cider;  Various  methods  of  checking  fermentation;  Preparation  of 
very  fine  cider 340 


XXviii  CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

Salicylic  acid  as  an  agent  for  cheeking  fermentation;  The  "salicylic 

acid  question"  ;  Manner  of  using  salicylic  acid  .  .  .  .341 
Clarification  of  cider  ;  French  method  of  clarifying  cider  ;  Improving 

the  taste  of  cider 342 

Preparation  of  cider  in  the  same  manner  as  other  fruit-wines  ;  Red 

apple-wine  or  red  wine  from  cider;  Sweet  cider  ....  343 
Dr.  Denis-Dumont's  directions  for  bottling  cider  ....  344 
Manufacture  of  cider  in  the  Island  of  Jersey  ;  Devonshire  cider ;  Heating 

of  cider 345 

Solution  of  the  problem  of  keeping  cider  sweet ;  Freezing  of  cider         .     346 
Champagne  eider        ..........     347 

Artificial  wines  from  cider;  Burgundy;  Malaga-wine;  Sherry-wine  .  348 
Claret-wine  ;  Diseases  of  cider  ;  Acidity  in  cider  ;  Viscosity  or  greasy 

appearance  of  cider  .........     349 

Turning  black  of  cider;  Turbidity  of  cider  ;  Adulteration  of  cider  .  350 
Dr.  Bremont  on  the  adulteration  of  cider  ;  Adulteration  of  cider  in 

France  ;  Minimum  limit  for  the  composition  of  pure  cider  .  .  351 
Results  of  the  investigation  of  American  ciders  by  the  United  States 

Agricultural  Department ;  Manufacture  of  brandy  from  cider  .  .  352 
Preparation  of  the  juice  for  distillation  ;  Brandy  from  plums,  damsons, 

etc.  ;  Distillation 353 

Rectification  of  apple-brandy  ;  Pear-cider  ......     354 

Preparation  of  "  port-wine"  from  pear-must ;  Quince  wine  .  .  355 

CHAPTER  XXVIII. 

FRUIT-WINES. 

From  small  fruits  ;  Prevention  of  the  turning  of  wine  from  small  fruits  ; 

Advantage  of  a  mixture  of  various  juices  for  the  preparation  of  wine  ; 

Means  of  improving  the  flavor  and  keeping  qualities  of  fruit-wine  .  356 

Selection  of  the  fruit ;  Expression  of  the  juice  ;  Fermentation  .  .  357 

Clarification  and  drawing  off  of  the  wine  into  bottles  ;  Currant-wine  .  358 
Composition  of  currant-wine,  two  years  old  ;  Preparation  of  a  very 

strong  beverage  from  the  juice  of  currants         ....  359 

VfMous  methods  of  preparing  strawberry-wine     .....  360 

Gooseberry-wine          .........  361 

Gooseberry-champagne        .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .  3^3 

Sender's  directions  for  the  preparation  of  gooseberry-champagne  .  .  364 

Raspberry-wine  *  .  .  365 

Blackberry-wine;  Mulberry-wine;  Elderberry-wine  .  .  .  SQQ 

Juniperberry-wine ;  Rhubarb- wine ;  Tomato-wine  .  .  .  357 

Parsnip-wine  ;  Preparation  of  wine  from  stone-fruits  ;  Cherry-wine  368 
Morello-wine ;  Plum-wine;  Apricot  and  peach-wines;  Sloe  or  wild 

plum-wine ofif) 


CONTENTS.  XXIX 


PART  III. 

CANNING  AND  EVAPORATING  OF  FRUIT,  MANUFACTURE 
OF  CATCHUPS,  FRUIT  BUTTERS,  MARMALADES,  JEL- 
LIES, PICKLES,  AND  MUSTARDS. 

CHAPTER  XXIX. 

PRESERVATION   OF   FRUIT. 

PAGE 

Rules  applying  to  all  methods  of  preserving  fruit  .          .         .         .371 

French  method  of  preserving  fruit,  known  as  au  Baine-Marie  ;  Preser- 
vation of  the  flesh  of  the  fruit  without  boiling  .....  372 

Preparation  of  fruit  for  preserving ;  Preservation  of  fine  table  pears  ; 
Boiling  down  of  fruit  in  large  stoneware  pots  .  .  .  .  .373 

Preserving  in  air-tight  cans  ;  National  importance  of  this  method  for 
the  United  States  and  England  ;  Groups  of  canned  articles  embraced 
in  the  American  trade  lists  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .374 

Difficulties  in  canning  plums  and  cherries  ;  Fruits  suitable  and  unsuit- 
able for  canning;  Selection  of  the  fruits  for  canning  .  .  .375 

List  of  varieties  of  fruit  preferred  by  the  North  American  factories  for 
canning ;  Preference  of  the  California  packers  for  the  Bartlett  pear ; 
Various  styles  of  cans  and  jars 376 

Complaint  against  the  use  of  tin  cans  ;  The  soldering  of  tin  cans  inside 
prohibited  in  England  ;  Manner  of  coating  and  lining  the  inside  of  tin 
cans  to  protect  the  contents  from  contact  with  the  metal  .  .  .377 

Manufacture  of  tin  cans  in  the  United  States  canneries;  Division  of 
labor  in  the  canneries  ;  Preparation  of  the  syrup  .  .  .  .378 

Apparatus  for  the  expulsion  of  air  by  heating  the  cans  ;  Cleansing  and 
testing  the  cans  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .379 

Mode  of  heating  the  cans  in  boiling  water  ;   Canning  of  tomatoes  .     380 

Selection  of  a  site  for  the  canning  establishment ;  How  contracts  for  a 
supply  of  tomatoes  are  made  ;  Arrangement  of  a  canning  factory  .  381 

Scalding  the  tomatoes;  Skinning  the  tomatoes  ;  Machines  for  filling  the 
cans 382 

"  Cappers"  and  their  work  ;  Labelling  the  cans  ....     383 

Trials  and  vexations  of  a  canner's  life ;  Principal  market  for  canned 
tomatoes 384 

Catchups  ;  Tomato  catchup 385 

Walnut  catchup  ;   Cucumber  catchup  ;   Horseradish  catchup          .          .     387 

Currant  catchup  ;  Gooseberry  catchup  ;  Fruit-butter,  marmalade,  and 
jelly;  Fruit-butter;  Manufacture  of  apple-butter  ....  388 

Preparation  of  raising ;  Manner  of  packing  fruit-butter        .         .         .    389 


XXX  CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

Marmalade  ;  Derivation  of  the  term  marmalade  ;  Manufacture  of  mar- 
malade on  a  large  scale  .  .  .  •  •  •  •  •  .391 

Quantity  of  sugar  to  be  used  ;  Secret  of  the  great  reputation  of  the  pro- 
ducts of  the  principal  American  factories  ;  Selection  of  fruit  for  mar- 
malade   391 

Perfumed  apple  marmalade  ;  Tutti-frutti;  Jelly;  Erroneous  opinion  as 
regards  the  quantity  of  sugar  required  for  making  jelly  ;  Preparation 
of  apple  jelly  without  sugar  ....••••  392 

Use  of  the  saccharometer  in  jelly  boiling;  Preparation  of  jellies  from 
pears,  mulberries,  berries,  and  other  small  fruit  .  .  .  .393 

Preparation  of  jelly  from  stone-fruit,  quinces,  rhubarb,  etc.  ;  French 
perfumed  jelly  ;  Manufacture  of  apple  jelly  in  the  largest  factory  in 
Oswego  County,  New  York  .  .  .  .  .  •  •  .394 

Arrangement  of  the  factory  ;  Grating  the  apples  and  expression  of  the 
juice  ;  Description  of  the  defecator  ......  395 

Object  of  the  defecator ;  Description  of  the  evaporator         .         .         .     396 

Proper  consistency  for  perfect  jelly ;  Mode  of  packing  the  jelly  for 
family  use  ...........  397 

Daily  product  of  the  factory  ;  Saving  of  the  apple  seeds  ;  Value  of  the 
apple  seeds  ;  Importance  of  such  institutions  .  .  .  .  .398 

The  kettle  ;  A  kettle  much  used  in  American  preserving  establishments, 
illustrated  and  described 399 

CHAPTER  XXX. 

EVAPORATION    OF    FRUIT. 

Great  future  of  this  mode  of  preserving  fruit ;  Difference  between  evap- 
orated ami  dried  fruit  .........  400 

Evaporating  establishments  about  Rochester,  N.  Y.  ;  Value  of  the  an- 
nual product  of  evaporated  fruit  in  the  State  of  New  York  ;  Water 
eliminated  by  the  process  of  evaporation  ;  Advantage  in  the  cost  of 
freight  of  evaporated  fruit ;  Total  export  of  evaporated  and  dried 
apples  from  the  United  States  during  1888,  and  value  of  the  same  .  401 

Enormous  increase  of  the  fruit  growing  industry  in  the  United  States  ; 
Award  of  the  first  prize  at  the  Paris  Exhibition  of  1 878  to  fruit  evapo- 
rated by  the  Alden  process  ;  List  of  articles  which  are  subjected  to 
evaporation;  Advantages  of  evaporated  fruit;  Unreliability  of 
canned  goods 402 

Experience  of  the  steamer  "  Rodgers"  with  canned  goods;  Principle 
upon  which  the  apparatus  for  evaporating  fruit  is  based,  and  the 
theory  of  evaporating  fruit  .....  403 

Absorption  of  moisture  by  the  air       ....  404 

Heat  alone  not  sufficient  for  drying 40 


CONTENTS.  XXXI 

PAGE 

Disadvantage  of  drying  fruit  in  the  oven  ;  Chemical  analysis  of  a  parcel 
of  Baldwin  apples,  showing  the  changes  effected  in  the  composition 
of  the  fruit  by  drying  in  the  oven,  and  by  evaporation      .          .         .     406 
The  Alden  apparatus,  illustrated  and  described    .         .          .          .          .     407 
Sun-drying  apparatus,  illustrated  and  described    .  409 

The  improved  Williams  evaporator,  manufactured  by  S.  E.  Sprout,  of 

Muncy,  Pa.,  illustrated  and  described 410 

The  American  fruit  evaporator  manufactured  by  the  American  Manu- 
facturing Co.,  Waynesboro',  Pa.,  illustrated  and  described       .         .412 
Manner  of  operating  the  Alden  apparatus    ......     413 

Table  of  intervals  at  which  the  trays  must  be  placed  in  the  apparatus  ; 
Manner  of  packing  evaporated  apples       ......     414 

Varieties  of  fruit  used  and  manner  of  preparing  them  for  evaporation  .     415 
Various  modes  of  bleaching  apples  and  pears  before  evaporation  ;  Treat- 
ment of  plums  after  evaporating ;  Manner  of  placing  the  fruit  in  the 

trays 416 

Conversion  of  grapes  into  raisins  by  evaporating  ;  Preparation  of  toma- 
toes, pumpkins,  sweet  potatoes,  green  corn,  etc.,  for  evaporation  .  417 

Manner  of  evaporating  potatoes 418 

How  evaporated  potatoes  should  be  packed  ;  French  method  of  drying 
fruit  in  the  oven      .         .          .          .          .          .          .         .         .          .419 

Method  of  drying  fruit  in  the  oven  practised  in  central  England  and  in 
the  New  England  States 420 

CHAPTER  XXXI. 

PREPARATION   OF   PICKLES   AND   MUSTARD. 

Manner  of  packing  pickles  ;  General  rules  for  the  preparation  of  pickles  .     420 

Preparation  of  spiced  vinegar ;  Utensils  used  in  the  preparation  of 
pickles  .  . 421 

"  Greening"  pickles;  List  of  fruits  which  are  chiefly  used  for  the  pre- 
paration of  pickles  in  factories ;  Barberries ;  Beans  ;  Cabbage,  red 
and  white  ;  Cauliflower ;  Cucumbers  ;  Elderberry  flowers  .  .  422 

English  bamboo ;  Gooseberries;  Mixed  pickles  ;  Mushrooms;  Onions; 
Peaches;  Peas;  Picalilly ;  Tomatoes;  Walnuts  .  .  423 

Mustard  ;  English  method  of  preparing  mustard  ;  Substances  used  for 
seasoning  mustard ;  Gumpoldskirchner  must-mustard  .  424 

Moutard  des  Jesuites  ;  French  mustard  ;  Ordinary  mustard  ;  Frankfort 
mustard;  Wine  mustard  ........  425 

Aromatic  or  hygienic  mustard  ;  Dusseldorf  mustard  ;  Sour  Dlisseldorf 
mustard;  Sweet  Kremser  must-mustard;  Sour  Kremser  must-mus- 
tard ;  Moutard  de  maille  .  .  .  .  .  •  •  .426 

Moutarde  aux  6pices  ;  Moutarde  aromatis6e  ;  English  mustard  .     427 


XXXli  CONTENTS. 

APPENDIX. 

PAGE 

Table  I.  Hehner's  alcohol  table 431 

Table  II.  which  indicates  the  specific  gravity  of  mixtures  of  alcohol  and 
water 433 

Table  III.  showing  the  proportion  between  per  cent,  by  weight  and  by 
volume  of  alcoholic  fluids  at  59°  F. 434 

Table  IV.  showing  the  actual  content  of  alcohol  and  water  in  mixtures 
of  both  fluids  and  the  contraction  which  takes  place  in  mixing  .  435 

Table  V.  for  comparing  the  different  areometers  with  Tralles's  alcohol- 
ometer   436 

Determination  of  the  true  strengths  of  spirit  for  the  normal  temperature 
of59°F 437 

Table  VI.  for  the  determination  of  the  true  strengths  of  spirit  for  the 
normal  temperature  of  59°  F.  (15°  C.) 439 

Table  VII.  for  the  determination  of  the  true  volume  of  alcoholic  fluids 
from  the  apparent  volume  at  different  temperatures ;  Explanation  of 
the  table 444 

Table  VIII.  of  the  preparation  of  whiskey  of  various  strengths  from  spirits 
of  wine  ...........  446 

Table  IX.  for  the  reduction  of  specific  gravities  to  saccharometer  per 
cent.  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .447 

Table  X.  for  the  comparative  synopsis  of  the  aerometers  for  must  gene- 
rally used  ...........  450 

Table  XI.  to  Oechsle's  aerometer  for  must ;  Table  XII.  to  Massonfour's 
aerometer;  Table  XIII.  for  comparing  per  cent,  of  sugar  with  per 
cent,  of  extract  and  the  specific  gravity  .  .  .  .  .  .451 

Table  XIV.  for  determining  the  content  of  per  cent,  of  acetic-acid 
contained  in  a  vinegar  of  —  specific  gravity  (according  to  A.  C. 
Oudemans)  ...  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  452 

Table  XV.  for  determining  the  content  of  per  cent,  of  acetic-acid 
contained  in  a  vinegar  of  —  specific  gravity  (according  to  Mohr)  .  453 

Table  XVI.  Comparison  of  the  scales  of  Keaumur,  Celsius,  and 
Fahrenheit  thermometers  .  .  .  .  .  .  454 

455 


•UNIVERSITY 


A  PRACTICAL  TREATISE 


ON 


THE  MANUFACTURE  OF  VINEGAR,  CIDER,  AND 
FRUIT- WINES; 

THE  PRESERVATION  OF  FRUITS  AND  VEGETABLES  BY 
CANNING  AND  EVAPORATION,  ETC. 


PART  I. 

THE  MANUFACTURE  OF  VINEGAR. 


CHAPTER  I. 

INTRODUCTION. 

ORDINARY  vinegar  is  dilute  acetic  acid,  contaminated  with 
various  vegetable  impurities.  In  this  form  it  has  been  known 
from  the  earliest  times,  and  its  discovery  must  have  immediately 
followed  that  of  wine,  because  it  is  evident  that  at  the  tempera- 
ture of  the  Eastern  countries,  where  the  first  experiments  on  the 
juice  of  the  grape  were  made,  fermentation  must  have  set  in 
rapidly,  and  the  wine  been  quickly  transformed  into  an  acid 
compound.  Moses  mentions  it  and  Hippocrates  made  use  of  it 
as  a  medicine.  Its  property  of  dissolving  calcareous  earth  under 
the  development  of  effervescence  was  known  in  the  earliest  times, 
and  there  cau  be  no  doubt  that  its  action  upon  metal,  etc.,  had 
been  investigated  at  a  very  remote  period.  Pliny  relates  how 
Cleopatra,  by  dissolving  large  pearls  in  vinegar  and  drinking  the 
resulting  liquid,  won  her  wager  of  being  able  to  consume  the 
value  of  one  million  sesterces  at  one  meal ;  and  Livy  and 
2 


18  VINEGAR,    CIDER,    AND    FRriT-WIXES. 

Plutarch  state  that  Hannibal  dissolved  the  rocks  impeding  his 
march  across  the  Alps  by  ordering  his  soldiers  to  pour  vinegar 
upon  them. 

Although  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  vinegar  was  in  very 
general  use  at  an  early  period,  there  was  until  very  recently  no 
•definite  knowledge  as  to  the  cause  of  its  production  and  the  mode 
of  its  formation.  The  alchemist  Gerber,  who  lived  in  the  eighth 
<>entury,  was  the  first  to  make  known  the  process  of  increasing 
the  strength  of  wine-vinegar  by  distillation,  and  Albucases 
(about  1100)  stated  the  fact  that  vinegar  to  be  colorless  has  to  be 
distilled  over  a  moderate  fire.  Basil  ins  Valentinus,  a  monk  and 
celebrated  alchemist  of  the  15th  century,  knew  that  by  the  slow 
distillation  of  vinegar,  first  a  weak  product,  and  then  a  stronger 
one  is  obtained,  and  he  was  probably  also  acquainted  with  the 
process  of  obtaining  strong  acetic  acid  by  distilling  copper 
acetate  (verdigris).  In  fact  for  a  long  time  this  was  the  only 
mode  of  preparing  acetic  acid,  the  product  of  the  further  rectifi- 
cation of  the  liquid  being  termed  radical  vinegar,  spiritm  Veneris, 
Venus'*  vinegar,  spiritm  aeruninis,  etc. 

Stahl  and  Westendorf  were  the  first  to  prepare  the  acid  in  a 
pure  state,  and  Lauranguais,  in  1 759,  discovered  the  property  of 
very  strong  acetic  acid  to  crystallize  at  a  low  temperature. 
Loewitz,  however,  in  1793,  was  the  first  to  obtain  it  as  a  pure 
hydrate  (glacial  acetic  acid). 

The  formation  of  an  acid  body  in  the  dry  distillation  of  wood 
was  already  known  in  the  17th  century.  However,  it  was  for  a 
long  time  not  recognized  as  acetic  acid,  but  considered  as  a  special 
acid  (pyroligneous  acid).  Fourcroy  and  Vauquelin,  in  1800, 
were  the  first  to  recognize  this  acid  as  acetic  acid,  and  Thenard, 
in  1802,  demonstrated  the  presence  of  acetic  acid  among  the  pro- 
ducts formed  in  the  dry  distillation  of  animal  substances. 

Berzelius,  in  1814,  determined  the  exact  chemical  constitution 
of  acetic  acid,  and  Saussnre,  in  the  same  year,  that  of  alcohol. 
Dr.  J.  Davy  observed  that  spongy  platinum,  in  contact  with 
vapor  of  alcohol,  l>ecame  incandescent  and  generated  acetic  acid. 
Dobereiner  further  studied  the  nature  of  the  acid,  and  proved 
that  the  alcohol  was  oxidized  at  the  expense  of  the'  atmospheric 
air,  producing  acetic  acid  and  water,  and  that  no  carbonic  acid 


INTRODUCTION.  19 

was  formed — thus  pointing  out  the  fallacy  of  the  opinion  held  by 
the  chemists  of  his  time  that  carbonic  acid  was  one  of  the  pro- 
ducts of  acetous  fermentation. 

Schutzeubach,  in  1823,  one  year  after  the  establishment  by 
Dobereiner  of  the  now  generally  accepted  theory  of  the  formation 
of  acetic  acid  from  alcohol,  introduced  the  quick  process  of  man- 
ufacturing vinegar. 

Without  detracting  from  the  credit  due  to  Schiitzenbaeh  for 
the  introduction  of  his  method  and  the  improvement  in  the  pro- 
cess of  the  manufacture  of  vinegar,  it  may  be  mentioned  that  as 
early  as  1732,  nearly  a  century  before,  the  celebrated  Dutch 
chemist  and  physician  Boerhaave  made  known  a  method  for  the 
fabrication  of  vinegar  from  wine,  which  contained  the  principles 
of  the  quick  process. 

Although  it  is  now  more  than  sixty  years  since  the  introduc- 
tion of  Schutzenbach's  process  into  the  practice,  the  manufacture 
of  vinegar  from  alcohol  remains  nearly  the  same.  While  no 
change  can  be  made  as  regards  the  theoretical  part  of  the  process, 
it  being  erected  upon  a  foundation  clearly  indicated  by  a  know- 
ledge of  natural  laws,  many  important  improvements  may  surelv 
be  introduced  in  the  manufacture  of  vinegar  on  a  large  scale,  this 
being  especially  the  case  where  it  is  uninterruptedly  carried  on 
with  the  use  of  suitable  apparatus.  Many  manufacturers  still 
work  according  to  Schutzenbach's  original  plan,  i.  e.,  they  use  an 
immense  amount  of  labor  for  a  performance  which  can  be  attained 
in  a  much  simpler  manner. 

Progress  is  necessary  in  every  business,  but  for  several  reasons 
it  is  especially  necessary  for  the  manufacturer  engaged  in  the 
fabrication  of  vinegar  by  the  quick  process.  Alcohol  in  every 
form  (whiskey,  beer,  wine)  is  everywhere  subjected  to  a  high  tax, 
and  the  constantly  increasing  taxation  of  this  fundamental 
material  for  the  fabrication  of  vinegar,  of  course  increases  the 
price  the  manufacturer  has  to  pay  for  it.  Another  reason  why 
the  manufacture  of  vinegar  from  alcohol  becomes  constantly  more 
difficult  is  found  in  the  great  competition  arising  from  the  con- 
tinued improvements  in  the  manufacture  of  pure  acetic  acid  from 
wood.  Not  many  years  ago  it  was  considered  impossible  to  ob- 
tain entirely  pure  acetic  acid  from  wood  when  manufacturing  on 


20  VINEGAR,    CIDER,    AND    FRUIT-WINES. 

a  large  scale,  but  the  article  produced  at  the  present  time  may  be 
almost  designated  as  u  chemically  pure"  in  the  true  sense  of  the 
word,  it  containing,  besides  acetic  acid,  only  water,  and  the  most 
accurate  analysis  cannot  detect  a  trace  of  the  products  of  tar,  which 
render  unpurified  wood  vinegar  unfit  for  use. 

For  consumption  on  a  large  scale,  especially  where  only  a  body 
of  an  acid  taste  is  required,  the  use  of  so-called  "  vinegar  essence" 
(?'.  c.,  pure  80  to  90  per  cent,  acetic  acid)  prepared  from  wood, 
and  which,  when  properly  diluted,  furnishes  ordinary  vinegar, 
will  undoubtedly  gradually  supersede  vinegar  prepared  from 
alcohol,  it  being  considerably  cheaper.  And  notwithstanding 
that  the  price  of  vinegar  essence  is  decreasing  every  year,  in 
regions  where  wood  is  plentiful  and  cheap,  its  manufacture  is  a 
well-paying  industry  on  account  of  the  many  valuable  by-products 
(tar,  wood-spirit,  charcoal)  obtained  besides  acetic  acid.  Even  at 
the  present  time  for  all  industrial  purposes  where  acetic  acid  is 
required,  as,  for  instance,  in  the  manufacture  of  tar  colors,  that 
obtained  from  wood  is  used,  and  the  quantities  consumed  in  the 
fabrication  of  table  vinegar  become  larger  every  year. 

But  the  manufacture  of  vinegar  from  alcohol  and  alcoholic  fluids 
will  nevertheless  continue  to  flourish  because  the  product  obtained 
from  them  actually  possesses  different  properties  from  the  pure 
acetic  acid  prepared  from  wood.  Vinegar  obtained  from  pure 
alcohol,  and,  still  more  so,  that  from  fermented  fruit  juices,  as 
wine,  cider,  skins  of  pressed  grapes,  or  from  malt,  contain,  besides 
acetic  acid  and  water,  small  quantities  of  bodies,  which  on  account 
of  their  being  analogous  to  those  occurring  in  wine,  may  be 
designated  as  u  bouquet-bodies,"  and  which  give  to  the  vinegar 
an  agreeable  smell  and  taste  entirely  wanting  in  acetic  acid  pre- 
pared from  wood.  These  properties  are  so  characteristic  that  any 
one  gifted  with  a  sensitive  and  practised  sense  of  smell  can  at 
once  distinguish  pure  acetic  acid  vinegar  from  that  prepared  from 
wine,  cider,  beer,  etc. 

By  the  addition  of  volatile  oils  or  compound  ethers  an  agree- 
able odor  can,  of  course,  be  imparted  to  vinegar  obtained  by 
diluting  pure  wood  acetic  acid  with  water,  but  it  is  impossible  to 
produce  the  harmonious  bouquet  peculiar  to  vinegar  prepared 
from  alcohol  or  fruit  juices,  a  similar  relation  existing  here  as 


THEORY   OF  THE   FORMATION   OF   VINEGAR.  21 

between  wine  and  so-called  artificial  wine.  The  latter  can  he 
made  so  as  nearly  to  approach,  as  regards  taste  and  smell,  genuine 
wine,  but  a  connoisseur  will  at  once  detect  the  difference. 

The  principal  defects  of  the  process  of  manufacturing  vinegar 
by  tEe  quick  process  in  general  use  are  not  in  the  method  itself, 
for  that,  as  already  indicated,  corresponds  entirely  to  the  theoreti- 
cal conditions,  and  yields  as  good  a  product  as  can  be  obtained 
from  the  raw  material  used.  The  weak  point  of  the  process  is 
found  in  the  practical  execution  of  it :  the  losses  of  material  are 
much  more  considerable  and  greater  than  are  absolutely  necessary, 
the  consumption  of  labor  is  very  large,  and,  as  every  manufacturer 
knows  from  experience,  interruptions  in  the  regular  process  of 
working  are  of  too  frequent  occurrence. 

All  these  disadvantages  can  be  reduced  to  a  minimum,  if  not 
absolutely  overcome,  and  it  is  hoped  sufficient  hints  how  this  can 
be  done  will  be  found  in  the  following  chapters. 


CHAPTER  II. 

THEORY   OF   THE    FORMATION   OF   VINEGAR. 

INDEPENDENTLY  of  the  formation  of  acetic  acid  by  the  so- 
called  dry  distillation,  the  chemical  processes  by  which  acetic  acid 
in  larger  quantities  is  formed  are  at  present  quite  well  understood, 
and  will  be  briefly  explained  as  follows  : — 

As  previously  mentioned,  Dobereiner,  in  1822,  established  the 
theory  of  the  formation  of  acetic  acid  from  alcohol,  and  the  pro- 
cesses taking  place  thereby  may  be  expressed  by  the  following 
formula  : — 

C2HC0     +     02    =    C2H402     +     HS0 

Alcohol.  Oxygen.  Acetic  acid.  Witter. 

According  to  the  above  formula,  acetic  acid  and  water  are 
formed  by  the  action  of  oxygen  upon  alcohol,  and  hence  the  for- 
mation of  acetic  acid  takes  place  by  a  partial  combustion  or 
oxidation  of  the  latter.  Alcohol  and  acetic  acid  are,  however, 
only  two  members  of  the  process,  and  that,  besides  the  latter, 


22  VINEGAR,   CIDER,   AND   FRUIT-WINES. 

other  bodies  are  formed  from  the  alcohol  can  be  readily  detected 
in  a  vinegar  manufactory  by  the  sense  of  smell. 

By  treating  alcohol  with  pyrolusite  and  sulphuric  acid— hence 
by  the  action  of  oxygen  at  the  moment  of  its  liberation  from  a 
combination  (in  its  nascent  state) — Dobereiner  obtained  a  body 
which  he  called  "light  oxygenated  ether"  (leichter  Sauer- 
stoffather).  Liebig,  later  on,  studied  the  nature  of  this  com- 
bination more  accurately,  and  found  that,  as  regards  its  composi- 
tion, it  differed  from  that  of  alcohol  only  by  containing  two 
atoms  less  of  hydrogen.  He  applied  to  it  the  term  "  aldehyde." 

Aldehyde  is  composed  of  C2H4O,  and  its  formation  is  repre- 
sented by  the  formula — 

C2HG0     +     <>    =     C2H40     +     H20 

Alcohol.  Oxygen.  Aldehyde.  Water. 

In  the  examination  of  the  properties  of  aldehyde  it  was  shown 
that  it  is  readily  converted  into  acetic  acid  by  the  absorption  of 
oxygen,  and,  based  upon  these  facts,  Liebig  established  a  theory 
of  the  formation  of  vinegar  which  was  for  many  years  considered 
correct. 

Essentially  Liebig's  theory  is  as  follows  : — 
By  the  exposure,  under  suitable  conditions,  of  alcohol  to  the 
action  of  the  atmospheric  oxygen,  one-third  of  the  entire  quantity 
of  hydrogen  contained  in  it  is  withdrawn,  and  aldehyde  is  formed. 
The  latter,  however,  immediately  further  combines  with  oxygen, 
and  is  converted  into  acetic  acid;  the  formation  of  vinegar  from 
alcohol  being,  therefore,  a  partial  process  of  combustion. 

From  the  present  stand-point  of  our  knowledge  as  regards  the 
formation  of  acetic  acid  from  alcohol,  the  correctness  of  this 
theory  is  about  parallel  with  that  according  to  which  alcohol  and 
carbonic  acid  are  formed  by  the  alcoholic  fermentation  of  sugar. 
This  latter  process  can  also  be  illustrated  by  an  equation  in  as 
simple  a  manner  as  the  conversion  of  alcohol  into  acetic  acid  by 
aldehyde.  At  the  present  time  the  processes  taking  place  in  the 
formation  of  acetic  acid  from  alcohol  must,  however,  be  considered 
as  far  more  complicated  than  supposed  by  Liebig.  According  to 
the  latter,  a  simple  oxidation,  i.  e.,  a  simple  chemical  process, 
takes  place;  but,  according  to  the  now  universally  accepted  view, 
the  formation  of  vinegar  is  due  to  a  cheniico-physiological  pro- 


THEORY   OF   THE    FORMATION   OF   VINEGAR.  23 

cess  with  the  cooperation  of  a  living  organism.  Alcohol  and 
oxygen  alone  do  not  suffice  for  this  purpose,  the  presence  of  nitro- 
genous bodies  and  salts,  besides  that  of  an  organism,  being  abso- 
lutely necessary. 

The  French  chemist,  Pasteur,  was  the  first  to  establish  the 
formation  of  vinegar  as  a  peculiar  process  of  fermentation,  and 
he  maintains  that  a  certain  organism,  the  "vinegar  ferment'7  or 
"  vinegar  yeast/'  consumes  the  alcohol,  nitrogenous  substances  and 
salts,  and  separates  acetic  acid,  aldehyde,  etc.,  as  products  of  the 
change  of  matter  taking  place  in  the  living  organism.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  German  chemist,  Nageli,  is  of  the  opinion  that 
the  role  of  the  organism  is  to  bring  the  particles  of  the  substance 
to  be  fermented  (in  this  case,  alcohol)  lying  next  to  it,  into  such 
vibrations  as  to  decompose  them  into  more  simple  combinations 
— in  this  case,  acetic  acid,  aldehyde,  etc. 

The  scientific  dispute  over  these  two  different  views  is  not  yet 
settled,  though  the  majority  of  chemists  are  inclined  to  accept 
Pasteur's  theory.  For  the  practical  man  it  is  of  no  consequence 
which  of  these  views  will  be  finally  accepted  as  the  correct  one ; 
the  fact  that  the  process  of  the  formation  of  vinegar  is  connected 
with  the  living  process  of  an  organism  is  alone  of  imporauce  to 
him. 

As  is  well  known,  organisms  producing  fermentation  are  named 
after  certain  products  which  they  form  in  larger  quantities,  the 
organism  forming  alcohol  from  sugar  being,  for  instance,  briefly 
termed  "  alcoholic  ferment."  In  this  sense  we  may  also  speak 
of  a  vinegar  or  acetous  ferment,  since  a  definite  organism  causing 
the  formation  of  larger  quantities  of  acetic  acid  from  alcohol  is 
known,  and  the  cultivation  of  this  ferment  is  one  of  the  principal 
tasks  of  the  manufacturer  of  vinegar. 

Numerous  observations  have  established  the  fact  that  the  pro- 
perties of  forming  large  quantities  of  acetic  acid  are  inherent 
only  in  this  ferment.  Small  quantities  of  acetic  acid  are,  how- 
ever, also  constantly  formed  by  other  ferments,  so  that  in  examining 
products  due  to  the  process  of  decomposition  induced  by  organ- 
isms, acetic  acid  will  be  generally  found  among  them.  In  the 
alcoholic  fermentation,  at  least  in  that  of  wine  and  bread-dough, 
acetic  acid  is  always  found.  It  originates  in  the  germination  of 


24  VINEGAR,   CIDER,   AND   FRUIT-WINES. 

many  seeds,  and  generally  ap|>ears  in  the  putrefaction  of  sub- 
stances rich  in  nitrogen,  such  as  albumen,  glue,  etc.  It  appears 
also  in  the  so-called  lactic  fermentation,  the  lactic  acid  formed  by 
the  specific  ferment  of  this  species  of  fermentation  being  by 
further  processes  of  fermentation  decomposed  into  butyric  and 
acetic  acids. 

Acetic  acid,  belonging  to  those  bodies  which  may  be  considered 
as  quite  far  advanced  products  of  oxidation  of  higher  compound 
combinations,  its  occurrence  in  living  organisms  is  not  remarkable. 
It  is  found  in  many  fluids  of  animal  origin,  for  instance,  in  meat- 
juice,  milk,  sweat,  and  urine.  It  also  occurs  constantly  in  the 
fresh  fruit  of  the  tamarind.  What  processes  take  place  in  its 
formation  in  these  cases  are  not  known,  though  it  is  very  likely 
directly  formed  from  certain  varieties  of  sugar.  Just  as  little  do 
we  know  about  the  origin  of  the  acetic  acid  found  in  the  mineral 
water  of  Briickenau.1 

There  is  quite  a  large  series  of  chemical  processes  in  which 
certain  quantities  of  acetic  acid  are  always  formed.  Sugar,  starch, 
woody  fibre,  and,  in  general,  all  compounds  known  as  carbohy- 
drates, when  fused  with  caustic  alkalies,  always  yield  certain 
quantities  of  acetic  acid,  as  also  by  themselves  when  subjected 
to  destructive  distillation. 

Among  the  processes  by  which  acetic  acid  is  produced  in  a 
purely  chemical  manner,  /.  r.,  without  the  cooperation  of  organ- 
isms, the  most  interesting  is  that  by  which  itvS  formation  is  effected 
by  the  action  of  very  finely  divided  platinum  (the  so-called  plati- 
num black)  upon  alcohol.  Platinum  black  is  easily  prepared  by 
boiling  a  solution  of  platinic  chloride  with  an  addition  of  an 
excess  of  sodium  carbonate  and  a  quantity  of  sugar  until  the 
precipitate,  formed  after  a  little  time,  becomes  perfectly  black  and 
the  supernatant  liquor  colorless.  The  black  powder  is  collected 
on  a  filter,  washed  and  dried  by  gentle  heat.  From  its  minute 
state  of  division  this  substance  condenses  within  it  several  hun- 
dred times  its  volume  of  oxygen  ;  consequently,  when  the  vapor 
of  alcohol  comes  in  contact  with  it,  a  supply  of  oxygen  in  a 
concentrated  state  is  presented  to  it,  and  the  platinum,  without 

1  Free  acetic  acid  is  also  claimed  to  occur  in  the  water  of  a  river  of  Brazil. 


THEORY   OF   THE   FORMATION   OF   VINEGAR. 


25 


losing  any  of  its  inherent  properties,  effects  chemical  combination, 
the  alcohol  undergoing  slow  combustion,  and  being  converted  into 
acetic  acid.  In  order  that  the  reaction  may  continue,  it  is,  of 
course,  necessary  to  present  fresh  oxygen  to  the  platinum  to  re- 
place that  which  is  withdrawn.  The  two  actions  then  go  on 
side  by  side. 

This  can  be  illustrated  by  an  apparatus  similar  to  Fig.  1.  It 
consists  of  a  bell  glass  through  the  mouth  of  which  a  long  funnel 
passes ;  the  lower  end  of  this  funnel  terminates  in  a  fine  point, 
so  that  the  alcohol  poured  in  may 
percolate  very  slowly.  The  vessel 
is  placed  upon  supports  within  a 
dish  in  which  is  a  saucer  or  small 
flat  basin  containing  the  platinum 
black.  The  interstice  between  the 
bottom  of  the  dish  and  the  bell 
serves  for  the  circulation  of  air  in 
the  jar.  On  pouring  the  alcohol 
through  the  funnel,  in  the  course  of 
a  short  time  the  odor  of  acetic  acid 
is  perceived  at  the  mouth  from  the 
acetic  acid  vapors,  which  are  gene- 
rated. These  condense  on  the  sides 
of  the  jar  and  trickle  to  the  bottom, 
where  they  collect  in  the  vessel  in 
the  dish.  It  is  advantageous  for  the 

success  of  the  experiment  to  have  the  alcohol  heated  to  about  90° 
F.  when  it  is  poured  in.  By  washing  and  glowing  the  platinum 
used  for  the  oxidation  of  alcohol,  it  can  be  again  employed  for 
the  same  purpose. 

Independently  of  the  purely  chemical  methods  which,  with  the 
exception  of  that  by  which  acetic  acid  is  produced  by  the  dry 
distillation  of  wood,  are  of  no  practical  importance,  the  forma- 
tion of  vinegar,  no  matter  what  method  may  be  adopted,  can  only 
be  effected  in  the  presence  of  certain  organisms.  It  has  long 
been  known  that  organisms  to  which  the  term  mother  of  vinegar 
has  been  applied,-  develop  upon  fluids  containing,  besides  alcohol, 
certain  other  substances,  for  instance  upon  weak  wine  and  beer, 


26  VINEGAR,   CIDER,    AND    FRUIT-WINES. 

and  this  mother  of  vinegar  has  also  been  used  for  the  fabrication 
of  vinegar  on  a  large  scale.  To  Pasteur,  however,  belongs  the 
incontestable  merit  of  having  more  accurately  examined  the  rela- 
tions of  these  organisms  to  the  formation  of  vinegar.  These 
examinations  gave  rise  to  his  experiments  on  the  diseased  altera- 
tion of  wine,  which  were  later  on  succeeded  by  his  researches  on 
the  formation  of  wine  vinegar. 

Pasteur  found  that  upon  the  surface  of  every  fluid  capable  by 
reason  of  its  composition  of  being  converted  into  vinegar,  organ- 
isms develop  immediately  after  the  commencement  of  the  forma- 
tion of  vinegar.  He  recognized  these  organisms  as  fungoid  plants 
of  a  low  order  and  called  them  Mycoderma  aceti.  More  recent 
researches  on  the  botanical  nature  of  these  plants  show  them  to 
belong  to  the  group  of  lowest  fungoid  organisms  to  which  the 
term  bacteria  or  schizomycdes  has  been  applied. 

These  plants  consist  of  a  single,  generally  globular  or  filiform 
cell,  their  special  characteristic;  being  their  mode  of  propagation, 
which  is  effected  by  the  division  of  the  cell  into  two  and  then  a 
separation  or  splitting  of  both. 

The  exceedingly  minute  size  of  the  schizomycetes  and  their 
great  resemblance  to  each  other  make  their  accurate  determina- 
tion very  difficult,  and,  hence,  it  is  customary  to  name  the  better 
known  species  in  accordance  with  the  chemical  products  they 
form  or  in  accordance  with  the  phenomena  they  produce.  Among 
the  first  kind  may  be  classed  those  which  effect  the  formation  of 
acetic,  lactic,  butyric  acids ;  other  very  little  known  bacteria  must 
be  considered  as  the  cause  of  the  so-called  nitric  acid  fermenta- 
tion, and  again  others  appear  in  putrid  fermentation.  A  special 
group  of  bacteria  reaches  development  in  animal  organisms  and 
give  rise  to  terrible  diseases,  some  causing  rinderpest,  others  tuber- 
culosis, and  various  other  maladies.  Cholera  and  other  epidemics 
have  also  recently  been  found  to  be  due  to  certain  bacteria. 

The  bacteria  causing  disease  are  of  course  very  interesting  to 
the  physician ;  but  to  the  manufacturer  of  vinegar  a  thorough 
knowledge  of  the  conditions  of  life  governing  the  vinegar  bacteria 
is  of  the  utmost  importance,  in  order  to  conduct  the  fabrication 
in  such  a  manner  that  disturbances  shall  rarely  occur,  and,  should 
they  happen,  that  he  may  be  able  readily  to  remove  them.  It  may, 


VINEGAR    FERMENT    AND    ITS   CONDITIONS   OF   LIFE.        27 

therefore,  be  said  that  the  entire  art  of  the  manufacture  of  vinegar 
consists  in  an  accurate  knowledge  of  the  conditions  of  life  of  the 
vinegar  bacteria  and  in  the  induction  of  these  conditions  of  life. 
As  long  as  the  latter  are  maintained,  the  process  of  the  formation 
of  vinegar  will  go  on  without  disturbance  and  the  origination  of 
new  generations  of  vinegar  ferment  be  connected  with  the  con- 
version of  certain  quantities  of  alcohol  into  vinegar. 


CHAPTER  III. 

THE   VINEGAR    FERMENT   AND    ITS    CONDITIONS    OF    LIFE. 

A.   The  Vinegar  Ferm,ent. 

XOTHING  is  as  yet  known  about  the  origin  of  the  vinegar 
bacteria,  but  experiments  have  shown  these  organisms  to  be  every- 
where distributed  throughout  the  air  and  to  multiply  at  an  enor- 
mous rate  when  fluids  of  a  composition  suitable  for  their  nour- 
ishment are  presented  to  them.  A  fluid  especially  adapted  for 
this  purpose  is,  for  instance,  thoroughly  fermented,  ripe  wine,  its 
exposure  in  a  flat  vessel  and  at  the  ordinary  temperature  of  a 
room  being  sufficient  to  induce  the  augmentation  of  the  vinegar 
bacteria  reaching  it  from  the  air. 

This  experiment  is,  however,  only  a  certain  success  when  exe- 
cuted with  ripe  wine,  by  which  is  meant  wine  which  shows  but 
little  turbidity  when  strongly  shaken  in  contact  with  air  and 
exposed  in  a  half-filled  bottle  to  the  air.  Young  wine  contains  a 
large  quantity  of  albuminous  substances  in  solution,  and  is  espe- 
cially adapted  for  the  nourishment  of  an  organism  (saccharomyces 
mesembryanthemum)  belonging  to  the  saccharomycetes.  It  develops 
upon  the  surface  of  such  wine  as  a  thick  white  skin  wrhich  later 
on  becomes  wrinkled  and  prevents  the  growth  of  the  vinegar 
ferment.  A  fluid  well  adapted  for  the  nourishment  of  the  vine- 
gar ferment,  and  which  may  be  used  as  a  substitute  for  wine  for 
its  cultivation,  is  obtained  by  adding  5  to  6  per  cent,  of  alcohol 
and  about  J  per  cent,  of  malt  extract  to  water. 


28  VINEGAR,   CIDER,   AND    FRUIT-WINES. 

By  exposing  ripe  wine  or  the  last-mentioned  fluid  at  the  ordi- 
nary temperature  of  a  room,  and  best  in  a  plate  covered  by  a 
glass  plate  resting  upon  small  wooden  blocks  to  prevent  the  access- 
of  dust,  the  formation  of  a  thin  veil-like  coating  upon  the  surface, 
which  shortly  covers  the  entire  surface,  will,  in  a  few  days,  be 
observed.  The  wine  soon  shows  the  characteristic  odor  and  taste 
of  acetic  acid,  and  in  a  few  days  assumes  a  somewhat  darker 
color  and  deposits  a  slight,  brownish  sediment  consisting  of  decayed 
vinegar  ferment.  In  14  to  21  days  the  fluid  is  entirely  converted 
into  vinegar,  i.  c.,  it  contains  no  more  alcohol,  but  instead  the 
corresponding  quantity  of  acetic  acid. 

By  exposing  the  vinegar  thus  obtained  for  a  longer  time  to  the 
air,  a  thick  white  skin  of  mold  may  happen  to  form  on  the  surface, 
and,  on  chemically  examining  the  fluid,  the  content  of  acetic  acid 
will  be  found  steadily  to  decrease,  the  mold  which  is  able  to  convert 
the  alcohol  into  water  and  carbonic  acid  possessing  also  the  power 
of  forming  the  same  products  from  acetic  acid. 

The  above-described  process  of  the  destruction  of  the  wine  and 
its  conversion  into  vinegar  by  a  veil-like  coating  of  the  vinegar 
ferment  occurs  most  frequently ;  a  thick  spume,  the  so-called 
'mother  of  vinegar,  may,  however,  also  happen  to  form  upon  the 
surface,  a  phenomenon  to  which  we  will  refer  later  on. 

On  examining  under  the  microscope  a  drop  taken  from  the 
surface  of  the  wine  when  the  veil  of  vinegar  ferment  commences 
to  form,  a  picture  like  that  shown  in  Fig.  2  presents  itself.  In 
a  somewhat  more  advanced  stage  the  formations  resembling 
chains  and  strings  of  beads  appear  more  frequently,  and  when 
finally  the  development  of  the  ferment  is  in  full  progress,  it 
appears  as  an  aggregation  of  numerous  single  cells  mixed  with 
double  cells  and  many  other  cells  strung  together  like  beads. 
The  field  of  vision  of  the  microscope  is  then  completely  filled 
with  a  large  number  of  colorless  globules,  which  are  present 
either  singly  or  in  combination  of  twos,  the  formations  resem- 
bling chains  or  strings  of  beads  occurring  but  seldom.  In  many 
of  the  separately-occurring  formations  oval  forms  generally 
slightly  contracted  in  the  centre  are  observed ;  this  contraction 
indicates  the  place  where  the  splitting  of  one  cell  into  two  new 
cells  takes  place.  By  strongly  shaking  the  fluid  before  viewing 


VINEGAR    FERMENT   AND   ITS   CONDITIONS   OF    LIFE.        29 

it  under  the  microscope,  very  few  of  the  above-mentioned  bead- 
like  formations  will  be  found,  but  more  frequently  the  contracted 
ones.  By  observing  for  hours  a  drop  of  the  fluid  containing  the 
ferment  in  an  advanced  state  of  development,  the  globules  strung 
together  will  be  noticed  to  fall  apart  when  at  rest.  Hence  it  may 
be  supposed  that  in  the  augmentaHon  of  cells  by  splitting,  the 
newly  formed  cells  adhere  together  up  to  a  certain  stage,  and 
later  on  separate  in  the  fluid  when  in  a  quiescent  state.  Like 

Fig.   2. 


Development  of  the  Vinegar  Ferment.     The  ferment  is  young  but  in  full  activity. 

X  500. 

every  other  organism  the  vinegar  ferment  only  lives  for  a  certain 
time,  and  after  dying,  sinks  below  the  fluid  and  forms  upon  the 
bottom  of  the  vessel  the  above-mentioned  sediment.  The  latter 
appears  under  the  microscope  in  the  same  form  as  the  living  fer- 
ment, but  differs  from  it  in  being  less  transparent  and  of  a 
brownish  color.  The  augmentation  of  the  vinegar  ferment  takes 
place  very  rapidly,  and  it  will  be  found  in  a  few  hours  after  the 
commencement  of  its  development  in  all  stages  of  life  upon  the 
surface  of  the  fluid,  it  being  possible  to  distinguish  cells  of  from 
1.5  to  3.5  micromillimetres  in  size.1 

The  vinegar  ferment  requiring /ree  oxygen  for  its  augmentation 

1  One  micromillimetre  =        v  millimetre. 


30  VINEGAR,   CIDER,   AND   FRUIT-WINES. 

can  exuberantly  grow  only  upon  the  surface  of  the  nourishing 
fluids.  By  filling  a  bottle  about  four-fifths  with  wine,  and  after 
allowing  the  vinegar  ferment  to  develop,  closing  the  mouth  of  the 
bottle  with  the  hand  and  submerging  the  neck  of  the  bottle  in 
water,  the  fluid  will  be  seen  to  rise  for  some  time  in  the  bottle 
and  then  remain  stationary.  A  determination  of  the  content 
of  acetic  acid  immediately  before  the  commencement  of  this  ex- 
periment, and  a  few  days  after,  shows  but  a  slight  increase  of 
acetic  acid,  because  after  the. ferment  has  consumed  the  free  oxygen 
present  in  the  bottle,  the  essential  condition  for  its  further  develop- 
ment is  wanting,  and  it  must  cease  its  activity  without,  however, 
perishing.  It  may  here  be  remarked  that  the  vinegar  ferment, 
like  the  majority  of  bacteria,  possesses  an  extraordinary  vitality  ; 
under  unfavorable  conditions  it  passes  into  a  kind  of  quiescent 
state,  during  which  no  perceptible  increase  of  cells  takes  place. 
It  may  remain  in  this  state  for  a  long  time  without  suffering 
destruction,  and  recommences  augmentation  and  propagation  in  a 
normal  manner  as  soon  as  the  conditions  required  for  its  nourish- 
ment are  again  presented. 

The  great  rapidity  of  the  augmentation  of  the  vinegar  bacteria 
can  be  shown  by  an  experiment  of  some  importance  to  the  prac- 
tice. Pour  into  a  shallow  vat  of  about  three  feet  in  diameter  a 
fluid  suitable  for  the  nourishment  of  bacteria,  and  divide  upon 
the  surface  by  means  of  a  thin  glass  rod  small  drops  of  wine,  upon 
which  the  frequently  mentioned  veil  has  been  formed.  In  a  few 
hours  the  entire  surface  of  the  fluid  in  the  vat  will  be  covered 
with  vinegar  bacteria,  spreading  concentrically  from  the  points 
where  the  drops  of  wine  have  been  distributed.  From  this  it  will 
be  seen  that  the  cultivation  of  the  ferment  for  the  purpose  of 
manufacturing  vinegar  offers  no  difficulties,  provided  all  con- 
ditions required  for  the  propagation  of  this  organism  be  observed. 

B.  Now*wkmy  conditions  of  the  vinegar  ferment. 

.Through  many  observations  and  experiments  made  in  practice 
the  conditions  most  favorable  for  the  development  of  the  vinegar 
ferment,  and  for  converting  in  the  shortest  time  the  largest  quan- 
tity of  alcohol  into  acetic  acid  have  been  determined.  These  con- 


VINEGAR   FERMENT   AND   ITS   CONDITIONS   OF   LIFE.        31 

ditions  will  first  be  briefly  enumerated  and  then  the  separate 
points  more  fully  discussed. 

For  the  vinegar  bacteria  to  settle  upon  a  fluid,  and  for  their 
vigorous  augmentation  the  following  factors  are  required  : — 

1.  A  fluid,  which,  besides  alcohol  and  water,  contains  nitro- 

genous bodies  and  alkaline  salts.     The  quantities  of  these 
bodies  must,  however,  not  exceed  a  certain  limit. 

2.  The  fluid  must  be  in  immediate  contact  with  oxygen  (at- 

mospheric air). 

3.  The  temperature  of  the  fluid  and  the  air   surrounding  it 

must  be  within  certain  limits. 

As  regards  the  composition  of  the  nourishing  fluid  itself,  it 
must  contain  all  the  bodies  required  for  the  nourishment  of  a 
plant  of  a  low  order.  Such  substances  are  carbohydrates,  albu- 
minates,  and  salts.  Alcohol  must  be  named  as  a  specific  nourish- 
ment of  the  vinegar  ferment,  provided  the  supposition  that  the 
latter  consumes  the  alcohol  and  separates  in  its  place  acetic  acid 
is  correct.  The  quantity  of  alcohol  in  the  fluid  intended  for  the 
fabrication  of  vinegar  must,  however,  not  exceed  a  certain  limit, 
a  content  of  15  per  cent,  appearing  to  be  the  maximum  at  which 
acetous  fermentation  can  be  induced.  But  even  a  content  of  12 
to  13  per  cent,  of  alcohol  is  not  very  conducive  to  the  vegetation 
of  the  vinegar  ferment,  and  every  manufacturer  knows  the  diffi- 
culty of  preparing  vinegar  from  such  a  fluid.  Like  a  high  con- 
tent of  alcohol,  a  large  quantity  of  acetic  acid  in  the  nourishing 
fluid  exerts  also  an  injurious  influence  upon  the  vinegar  ferment. 
Upon  a  fluid  containing  12  to  13  per  cent,  of  acetic  acid,  and  1 
to  2  per  cent,  of  alcohol,  the  ferment  vegetates  only  in  a  sluggish 
manner,  and  considerable  time  is  required  to  convert  this  small 
quantity  of  alcohol  into  acetic  acid. 

That  the  vinegar  ferment  cannot  live  in  dilute  alcohol  alone 
may  be  shown  by  a  simple  experiment.  By  placing  fully  developed 
ferment  upon  a  fluid  consisting  of  only  water  and  alcohol,  a  very 
small  quantity  of  acetic  acid  is  formed,  but  the  ferment  perishes 
in  a  short  time — it  starves  to  death.  A  fluid  suitable  for  the 
nourishment  of  the  ferment  must  therefore  contain  the  above- 
mentioned  nourishing  substances,  sugar,  dextrine,  or  similar  com- 
binations occurring  in  wine,  malt  extract,  beer,  being  generally 


32  VINEGAR,   CIDER,   AND   FRUIT-WINES. 

employed  as  carbohydrates.  These  fluids  further  contain  nitro- 
genous combinations  which  may  serve  as  nutriment  for  the 
ferment,  and  also  considerable  quantities  of  phosphates.  Hence 
by  an  addition  of  wine  (or  must),  malt  extract,  beer,  or  any  fruit 
wine  (apple  or  pear  cider)  to  a  mixture  of  alcohol  and  water,  a 
fluid  can  be  prepared,  which  contains  all  the  substances  essential 
to  the  nourishment  of  the  ferment. 

The  quantity  of  these  nourishing  substances,  as  compared  with 
that  of  alcohol,  is  very  small,  the  quantity  by  weight  of  vinegar 
ferment  required  for  the  conversion  of  a  very  large  amount  of 
alcohol  into  vinegar  being  only  a  few  fractions  of  one  per  cent,  of 
weight  of  alcohol  used.  Hence  the  manufacturer  may  be  very 
economical  with  the  addition  of  nourishing  substances  to  the  fluid 
to  l>e  converted  into  vinegar  without  having  to  fear  that  the  fer- 
ment will  be  stinted. 

The  vinegar  ferment  is  very  sensitive  to  sudden  changes  in  the 
composition  of  the  fluids  upon  which  it  lives  and  suffers  injury 
by  such  changes  which  is  recognized  by  diminished  propagation 
and  decreased  conversion  of  alcohol  into  acetic  acid. 

By  bringing,  for  instance,  vinegar  ferment  which  vegetated  in 
an  entirely  normal  manner  upon  a  fluid  containing  only  4  to  5 
per  cent,  of  alcohol,  upon  one  with  a  content  of  10  to  11  per 
cent.,  its  augmentation,  as  well  as  fermenting  energy,  decreases 
rapidly  and  remains  sluggish  until  a  few  new  generations  of  cells 
have  been  formed  which  are  better  accustomed  to  the  changed 
conditions.  By  bringing,  on  the  other  hand,  a  ferment  from  a 
fluid  rich  in  alcohol  upon  one  containing  a  smaller  percentage  the 
disturbances  in  the  conditions  of  the  ferment  can  also  be  observed, 
but  they  exert  a  less  injurious  influence  upon  the  process  of  the 
formation  of  vinegar  than  in  the  former  instance. 

The  process  of  nourishment  of  the  vinegar  ferment  must,  how- 
ever, not  be  understood  to  consist  simply  in  the  consumption  of 
sugar,  albuminates,  and  salts.  It  differs  according  to  the  compo- 
sition of  the  nourishing  fluid,  and  is  so  complicated  as  to  require 
a  very  thorough  study  for  its  explanation.  If,  for  instance,  wine 
is  converted  into  vinegar,  and  the  composition  of  the  latter  com- 
pared with  that  of  the  original  wine,  it  will  be  found  that  not 
only  the  alcohol  has  been  converted  into  acetic  acid  and  the  fluid 


VINEGAR   FERMENT   AND    ITS   CONDITIONS   OF   LIFE.         33 

has  suffered  a  small  diminution  of  extractive  substances  and  salts, 
which  might  be  set  down  to  the  account  of  the  nourishment  of 
the  ferment,  but  that  the  quantity  of  tartaric,  malic,  and  succiuic 
acids  has  also  decreased  as  well  as  that  of  glycerine,  and  of  the 
latter  even  nothing  may  be  present.  Hence  it  must  be  supposed 
that  the  vinegar  ferment  also  derives  nourishment  from  these  sub- 
stances, or  that  its  fermenting  activity  acts  upon  them  as  well  as 
upon  the  alcohol.  There  is  finally  the  very  important  fact  for 
the  practice,  which  has  not  yet  been  sufficiently  explained,  that 
the  vinegar  ferment  develops  more  rapidly  upon  a  fluid  which, 
besides  the  requisite  nourishing  substances,  contains  a  certain 
quantity  of  acetic  acid,  than  upon  a  fluid  entirely  destitute  of  it.. 
Regarding  the  supply  of  air,  it  may  be  said  that,  while  for  mere 
existence  the  vinegar  ferment  requires  comparatively  little  air, 
large  quantities  of  it  are  necessary  for  its  vigorous  augmentation 
and  fermenting  activity.  In  the  practice  it  is  aimed  to  accom- 
plish this  by  exposing  the  fluid  in  which  the  ferment  lives  in  thin 
layers  to  the  action  of  the  air,  and,  in  fact,  upon  this  the  entire 
process  of  the  quick  method  of  fabrication  is  based. 

Besides  the  above-mentioned  factors  the  temperature  to  which 
the  ferment  is  exposed  takes  an  important  part  as  regards  its 
development.  The  limits  at  which  the  augmentation  of  the  fer- 
ment and  its  vinegar-forming  activity  are  greatest,  lie  between 
H8°  and  95°  F.  Above  this  limit  the  formation  of  vinegar 
decreases  rapidly  and  ceases  entirely  at  104°  F.  By  again 
reducing  the  temperature  to  86°  F.  the  ferment  reassumes  its 
activity.  At  a  temperature  exceeding  104°  F.  the  ferment  suffers 
perceptible  injury ;  heated  to  103°  F.  it  becomes  sensibly  weaker, 
and  at  first  augments  very  slowly,  regaining  its  original  vigorous 
development  only  after  several  generations.  By  raising  the  tem- 
perature of  the  fluid  to  122°  F.  the  ferment  perishes. 

To  low  temperatures  the  ferment  seems  to  be  less  sensitive. 
By  lowering  the  temperature  of  a  fluid  showing  an  exuberant 
growth  of  ferment  to  50°  F.  or  less,  the  formation  of  vinegar 
continues,  though  at  a  very  much  reduced  rate.  Experiments 
especially  made  for  the  purpose  have  shown  that  by  exposing 
wine  with  a  growth  of  ferment  to  a  temperature  of  14°  F.  so 
that  it  was  converted  into  ice,  the  ferment  recommenced  to  grow 
3 


34  VIXEGAR,   CIDER,    AND   FRUIT-WINES. 

and  to  form  acetic  acid  after  melting  and  heating  the  fluid  to  59° 
F.  It  should,  however,  be  expressly  stated  that  while  vinegar 
ferment  in  a  state  of  development  keeps  up  a  slow  growth  when 
the  fluid  is  reduced  to  a  low  temperature,  it  is  very  difficult  to 
rear  it  upon  a  cold  fluid.  This  is  very  likely  the  reason  why 
acetous  degeneration  is  not  known  in  cold  wine  cellars,  while  in 
those  having  a  temperature  of  over  59°  F.  this  dreaded  process 
can  only  be  guarded  against  by  the  greatest  care.  . 

Since  the  augmentation  of  the  ferment  and  its  fermenting 
activity  increase  with  a  higher  temperature,  it  would  appear  most 
suitable  to  keep  the  temperature  of  the  fluid  to  be  converted  into 
vinegar  as  near  the  uppermost  limit  of  95°  F.  as  possible.  Ex- 
perience, however,  has  shown  that  at  this  temperature  disturb- 
ances are  of  frequent  occurrence  in  the  generators,  and  for  this 
reason  one  of  86°  to  89°  F.  is  generally  preferred.  The  process 
of  the  formation  of  vinegar  itself  explains  why  disturbances  may 
easily  occur  at  a  high  temperature.  It  is  a  chemical  (oxidizing) 
process  in  which  a  certain  quantity  of  heat  depending  on  the 
quantity  of  alcohol  to  be  oxidized  within  a  certain  time  is  always 
liberated.  If  now  by  the  use  of  a  temperature  close  to  95°  F. 
the  activity  of  the  ferment  is  strained  to  the  utmost,  a  large  quan- 
tity of  alcohol  is  in  a  short  time  converted  into  acetic  acid,  and 
consequently  so  much  heat  is  liberated  that  the  temperature  in  the 
generator  rises  above  the  permissible  maximum  and  the  ferment 
immediately  ceases  its  activity.  Thus  it  may  happen  that  in  a 
generator  which  has  satisfactorily  worked  for  some  time,  the  for- 
mation of  vinegar  ceases  all  at  once,  and  on  examining  the  ther- 
mometer placed  on  the  apparatus  the  cause  will  be  generally  found 
to  be  due  to  too  high  a  temperature. 

Mother  of  Vinegar. 

In  connection  with  the  description  of  the  conditions  of  life  of 
the  vinegar  bacteria,  a  peculiar  formation,  playing  in  many  cases 
a  role  in  the  practice  of  the  fabrication  of  vinegar,  has  to  be 
mentioned.  This  is  the  so-called  mother  of  vinegar,  the  term 
having  very  likely  been  applied  to  it  on  account  of  its  causing 


VINEGAR   FERMENT   AND    ITS   CONDITIONS   OF    LIFE.         35 

acidification  when  brought  into  a  fluid  suitable  for  the  formation 
of  acetic  acid. 

The  mother  of  vinegar  occurs  generally  only  in  fluids  which, 
besides  alcohol,  contain  large  quantities  of  extractive  substances, 
for  instance,  wine  or  beer.  After  the  ordinary  vinegar  ferment 
has  for  some  time  grown  upon  the  surface  of  these  fluids  a  coat- 
ing is  formed  which  acquires  a  thickness  of  up  to  j-  inch,  and 
such  consistency,  that  with  some  care,  it  can  be  lifted  as  a  cohe- 
rent mass  from  the  fluid.  The  mother  of  vinegar  then  represents 
a  very  elastic  transparent  mass  of  a  yellowish-white  color  and 
closely  resembles  an  animal  hide  swelled  to  a  high  degree  by  treat- 
ment with  water. 

Upon  the  side  of  the  skin  exposed  to  the  air  numerous  molds 
frequently  settle  and  form  complete  sods  of  the  well-known  gray 
green  or  yellow  color.  This  is,  however,  only  a  secondary  phe- 
nomenon, the  mother  of  vinegar  being  especially  adapted  as  a 
basis  for  the  development  of  molds.  By  exposure  to  the  air,  best 
upon  a  porous  support  (a  plate  of  brick  or  gypsum),  the  mother 
of  vinegar  quickly  decreases  in  bulk  and  finally  dries  to  a  very 
thin  layer  resembling  paper.  Viewed  under  the  microscope  the 
mother  of  vinegar  appears  as  a  mass  entirely  devoid  of  structure 
in  which  numerous  individuals  of  the  vinegar  ferment  are 
imbedded. 

Several  opinions  have  been  expressed  as  to  the  nature  of  the 
mother  of  vinegar,  and  among  others  that  it  is  a  special  variety 
of  vinegar  ferment,  wrhich,  however,  cannot  be  accepted  as  correct, 
it  being  far  more  probable  that  its  formation  depends  on  the 
nature  of  the  fluid  upon  which  ordinary  vinegar  ferment  grows. 
As  previously  mentioned,  the  mother  of  vinegar  reaches  develop- 
ment upon  young  wine  and  beer,  and  these  fluids  always  contain 
certain  quantities  of  albuminous  substances  in  solution.  Now  it 
is  very  probable  that  the  mother  of  vinegar  consists  of  pecu- 
liarly changed  albuminous  substances — eventually  also  of  carbo- 
hydrates— and  that  innumerable  organisms  of  the  vinegar  ferment 
are  distributed  throughout  the  mass  which  cause  the  acidification 
of  fluids  to  which  it  is  transferred.  This  view  is  supported  by 
its  composition,  with  regard  to  its  organic  substance,  as  deter- 
mined by  Mulder. 


36  VINEGAR,    CIDER,    AND    FRUIT-WINES. 

Composition  of  the  mother  of  vinegar,  according  to  Mulder  :— 

Carbon 46-8 

Hydrogen  ....-'••  6-4 

Nitrogen 3-9 

Oxygen 42<^ 

According  to  R.  D.  Thomson,  who  also  examined  the  mother 
of  vinegar,  its  composition  is  : — 

Organic  substance         .{  C^lul°Se  }  about  5  per  cent. 

I   al  lin-ini  nrtim  snhstaiioe    t 


'I  albuminous  substance 
J  potash,  lime 
I  phosphoric  acid 
Water  .....    more  than  94 


salts       .      .      .  i*: ;'— -  .,  " 


These  analyses  justify  the  opinion  that  albuminous  substances 
as  well  as  carbohydrates  participate  in  the  formation  of  the  mother 
of  vinegar.  (In  beer  carbohydrates  are  always  present,  while  in 
wine  extractive  substances  occur  which,  at  least,  are  closely  allied 
to  the  carbohydrates.)  An  experiment  especially  made  for  the 
purpose  conclusively  proves  that  the  formation  of  the  mother  of 
vinegar  depends  on  the  presence  of  the  above-mentioned  sub- 
stances in  the  fluid  upon  which  it  grows. 

A  thick  cover  of  mother  of  vinegar  had  formed  upon  young 
wine ;  this  being  removed  it  was  in  a  few  days  replaced  by  a  new 
growth,  which,  however,  was  not  quite  so  thick.  This  cover 
being  also  removed  a  third  but  very  slight  one  was  formed  until 
finally  a  cover  of  mother  of  vinegar  was  no  longer  developed 
upon  the  fluid,  but  only  normal  vinegar  ferment.  The  explana- 
tion of  this  phenomenon  is  that  with  the  decrease  of  nitrogenous 
substances  in  the  wine,  the  conditions  for  the  development  of 
mother  of  vinegar  became  constantly  more  unfavorable  until 
finally  nothing  but  vinegar  ferment  could  form.  By  transferring 
a  piece  of  mother  of  vinegar  to  a  fluid  composed  of  alcohol,  water, 
and  some  old  wine  (hence  such  as  contained  only  very  small  quan- 
tities of  nitrogenous  substances)  the  slimy  mass  remained  floating 
in  the  fluid  without  increasing  or  undergoing  alteration,  while  the 
surface  became  covered  with  ordinary  vinegar  ferment  and  acidi- 
fication proceeded  in  a  normal  manner. 

The  formation  of  mother  of  vinegar  can  always  be  successfully 
attained  by  exposing  young  wine  to  the  air  until  the  commence- 


VINEGAR    FERMENT   AND    ITS    CONDITIONS    OF    LIFE.         37 

ment  of  the  formation  of  mold  is  indicated  by  the  appearance  of 
white  dots  and  then  transferring  the  wine  to  a  room  having  a 
temperature  of  86°  F.  At  this  temperature  the  development  of 
the  vinegar  ferment  proceeds  so  vigorously  that  it  suppresses  the 
mold  ferment,  and  the  peculiar  mass  constituting  the  mother  of 
vinegar  soon  forms  upon  the  surface. 

Mother  of  vinegar  occurs  so  generally  in  young  wine  (which 
is  chiefly  used  for  the  preparation  of  wine  vinegar)  that  its  for- 
mation was  considered  as  inseparably  connected  with  that  ot 
acetic  acid  from  alcohol,  while  actually  it  is  only  due  to  the  pecu- 
liar constitution  of  the  fluid  to  be  converted  into  vinegar.  In 
many  places  this  opinion  is  still  entertained,  and  especially  where, 
as  is  generally  the  case,  the  manufacture  of  vinegar  from  wine  is 
yet  carried  on  in  the  primitive  way  of  centuries  ago.  In  speaking 
of  the  preparation  of  vinegar  from  wine,  it  will  be  shown  that  the 
conversion  can  be  effected  by  means  of  the  ordinary  vinegar 
ferment  without  the  appearance  of  mother  of  vinegar. 

Summary. 

Briefly  stated  the  points  of  the  theoretical  conditions  of  the 
formation  of  vinegar  of  importance  to  the  manufacturer  are  : — 

1.  Acetic  acid  is  formed  during  many  chemical  conversions; 

for  the  manufacture  of  acetic  acid,  and  consequently  of 
vinegar  on  a  large  scale,  only  two  methods  are  available, 
viz.,  the  preparation  of  vinegar  from  alcohol  by  fermenta- 
tion, or  the  obtaining  of  acetic  acid  by  dry  distillation  of 
wood. 

2.  All  alcoholic  fluids  formed  by  vinous  fermentation  of  saccha- 

riferous  plant  juices  or  fermented  malt  extracts  are  suitable 
for  the  preparation  of  vinegar  by  fermentation.  Specially 
prepared  mixtures  of  water,  alcohol,  and  vinegar  may 
also  be  used  for  the  purpose,  provided  they  contain  small 
quantities  of  certain  organic  substances  and  salts,  and  not 
over  14  per  cent,  of  alcohol. 

3.  The  acetous  fermentation  is  induced  by  a  microscopic  organ- 

ism belonging  to  the  bacteria,  and  the  conversion  of  the 
alcohol  into  acetic  acid  is  in  a  certain  ratio  to  the  aug- 
mentation of  this  organism. 


38  VINEGAR,    CIDER,    AND    FRUIT-WINES. 

4.  Besides  the  substances  mentioned  in  2,  the  vinegar  ferment 

requires  for  its  vigorous  development  free  oxygen  and  a 
temperature  lying  between  68°  and  95°  F. 

5.  In  the  acetous  fermentation  the  greater  portion  of  the  alcohol 

is  converted  into  acetic  acid  and  water ;  besides  these  small 
quantities  of  other  products  are  formed  which  are  partially, 
not  yet  thoroughly,  known.  In  the  conversion  of  wine, 
beer,  etc.,  other  combinations  contained  in  the  fluids, 
besides  alcohol,  are  also  essentially  changed. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

PRODUCTS  OF  ACETOUS  FERMENTATION. 

THE  formation  of  vinegar  by  fermentation  being  a  chemico- 
physiological  process,  many  and  complicated  chemical  processes 
must  take  place  in  the  fluid  to  be  converted  into  vinegar  in  order 
to  produce  all  the  combinations  required  for  the  augmentation  of 
the  ferment.  Attention  cannot  be  too  frequently  called  to  the 
fact  that  from  the  standpoint  of  the  manufacturer,  the  regular 
augmentation  of  the  ferment  is  the  main  point  of  the  entire  fab- 
rication, the  quick  conversion  of  the  alcohol  contained  in  the  fluid 
being  a  necessary  consequence  of  it. 

The  body  of  the  ferment,  however,  contains  cellulose,  albu- 
minous substances,  very  likely  fat  and  other  combinations  not  yet 
known,  all  of  which  must  be  formed  from  the  nourishing  sub- 
stances (sugar,  dextrine,  albuminous  substances,  etc.),  present. 
It  being  very  probable  that  a  portion  of  the  alcohol  contained  in 
the  fluid  is  consumed  for  this  purpose,  a  small  but  nevertheless  per- 
ceptible loss  of  alcohol  will  occur  in  the  fabrication.  It  would 
be  erroneous  to  suppose  that  the  conversion  of  alcohol  into  acetic 
acid  and  water  is  effected  according  to  the  Formula  given  on  p.  21 ; 
a  certain  portion  of  it  is  always  converted  into  other  combinations, 
the  nature  and  formation  of  which  can  only  be,  to  a  certain  extent, 
explained. 

In  the  vinous  fermentation,  which  of  all  fermenting  processes 


PRODUCTS   OF   ACETOUS    FERMENTATION.  39 

has  been  most  thoroughly  studied,  we  find  that  besides  alcohol 
and  carbonic  acid  large  quantities  of  glycerin  and  succinic  acid 
and  probably  other  bodies  are  formed  from  the  sugar,  which  must 
undoubtedly  be  classed  among  the  products  of  vinous  fermenta- 
tion. Similar  processes,  no  doubt,  take  place  in  the  acetous  fer- 
mentation, and  besides  acetic  acid  and  water  other  little  known 
products  of  fermentation  are  regularly  formed. 

According  to  the  nature  of  the  sacchariferous  fluids  subjected 
to  vinous  fermentation  small  quantities  of  certain  bodies  called 
fusel  oils  are  formed  which  are  decidedly  products  of  fermenta- 
tion. They  impart  to  the  fermented  fluid,  as  well  as  to  the  alcohol 
distilled  from  it,  such  characteristic  properties  that  from  the  odor 
of  the  alcohol  a  correct  judgment  can  be  formed  as  to  the  material 
employed  in  its  preparation. 

In  the  conversion  of  such  a  fluid,  or  of  alcohol  prepared  from 
it,  into  vinegar,  the  fusel  oils  are  also  changed — very  likely  oxi- 
dized— and  with  some  experience  the  material  (wine,  beer,  malt, 
etc.),  from  which  the  vinegar  has  been  made  can  be  determined 
by  the  sense  of  smell.  The  quantities  of  aromatic  substances 
which  reach  the  vinegar  in  this  manner  are,  of  course,  very  small, 
but  they  must  nevertheless  be  classed  among  the  most  important 
products  of  acetous  fermentation,  they  being  very  characteristic 
as  regards  the  nature  of  the  vinegar.  Of  the  products  of  acetous 
fermentation,  besides  acetic  acid,  aldehyde  and  acetal  are  best 
known,  these  combinations  appearing  always,  even  if  only  in 
small  quantities,  in  the  fabrication  of  vinegar  according  to  the 
methods  customary  at  the  present  time. 

Acetic  Aldehyde  or  Acetaldehyde. 

Acetic  aldehyde,  commonly  called  simply  aldehyde  (from  alcohol 
dehydrogenatum),  is  obtained  by  oxidizing  spirits  of  wine  by 
means  of  manganese  dioxide  (pyrolusite)  and  sulphuric  acid, 
chromic  acid,  or  platinum  black,  in  the  presence  of  air,  or  if  alcohol 
or  ether  is  burning  without  a  sufficient  supply  of  air.  It  is  also 
formed  by  heating  a  mixture  of  acetate  and  formate  of  calcium. 
It  is  contained  in  considerable  quantities  in  the  first  runnings 
obtained  in  the  manufacture  of  spirit  of  wine. 


40  VINEGAR,    CIDER,    AND   FRUIT-WINES. 

To  prepare  pure  aldehyde  3  parts  of  potassium  clichromate  in 
small  pieces  are  placed  in  a  flask  surrounded  by  a  freezing  mix- 
ture and  a  well-cooled  mixture  of  2  parts  of  spirit  of  wine,  4  of 
sulphuric  acid,  and  4  of  water  added.  After  connecting  the  flask 
with  a  condenser  the  freezing  mixture  is  removed ;  a  violent  reac- 
tion soon  sets  in  and  the  liquid  begins  to  boil.  The  vapors  have 
first  to  pass  through  an  ascending  tube  surrounded  by  warm  water 
at  about  122°  F.  Alcohol  and  different  products  are  condensed 
and  flow  back  while  the  vapor  of  the  aldehyde,  after  having 
passed  through  a  descending  condenser,  is  absorbed  in  anhydrous 
ether. 

Pure  aldehyde  thus  obtained  is  a  colorless  liquid  of  the  com- 
position C2H4O.  Its  specific  gravity  is  0.800,  and  it  boils  at 
about  71.5°  F.  It  has  a  pungent  and  suffocating  smell  and  is 
readily  soluble  in  water,  alcohol,  and  acetic  acid.  Like  all  the 
aldehydes  it  is  very  easily  oxidized  and  acts,  therefore,  as  a  pow- 
erful reducing  agent.  Thus,  on  heating  it  with  a  little  ammonia 
and  nitrate  of  silver,  metallic  silver  separates  out,  coating  the 
sides  of  the  vessel  with  a  bright  mirror.  It  combines  with  ammo- 
nia and  forms  a  crystalline  compound  which  has  a  peculiar  smell 
of  mice. 

Though  it  is  likely  that  in  the  fabrication  of  vinegar  by  the 
quick  process,  besides  aldehyde,  acetic  and  formic  ethers  are 
formed,  they  are  of  comparatively  little  importance  for  our  pur- 
poses. Of  more  importance,  however,  is  acetal,  the  formation  of 
this  combination  affording  an  interesting  insight  into  the  compli- 
cated processes  accompanying  the  conversion  of  alcohol  into  acetic 
acid. 

Acetal. 

This  combination  is  best  prepared  by  distributing  pieces  of 
pumice,  previously  moistened  with  25  per  cent,  alcohol  over  a 
large  glass  plate,  placing  watch  crystals  containing  platinum  black 
upon  the  pieces  of  pumice  and  covering  the  whole  with  a  large 
bell-glass.  The  alcohol  absorbed  by  the  pumice  being  converted 
into  acetic  acid,  60  per  cent,  alcohol  is  poured  upon  the  plate  and 
the  air  in  the  bell-glass  from  time  to  time  renewed.  In  a  few 


PRODUCTS   OF   ACETOUS    FERMENTATION.  41 

weeks  a  quite  thick  fluid  of  an  agreeable  odor  has  collected  upon 
the  glass  plate.  This  is  collected  and  distilled,  the  portion  passing 
over  at  219°  F.,  being  collected  by  itself. 

Pure  acetal  is  composed  of  CfiHl4O2.  It  is  a  colorless  liquid, 
has  a  specific  gravity  of  0.821,  and  boils  at  219.2°  F.  It  has  a 
refreshing  odor,  calling  to  mind  that  of  fruit  ethers.  By  oxi- 
dizing agents  it  is  quickly  converted  into  acetic  acid.  Nitrate  of 
silver  in  the  presence  of  ammonia  is,  however,  not  reduced  by  it, 
and  it  remains  unchanged  on  boiling  with  potash  lye.  From  its 
composition  acetal  may  be  considered  from  several  points  of  view. 
It  may  be  regarded  as  an  ethyl  alcohol  (glycol)  C2H6O2,  in 
which  two  atoms  of  hydrogen  have  been  replaced  by  two  mole- 
cules of  the  radical  ethyl  C2H5,  hence  thus 

f  }  -  ^hyl-glycol 


C6H14O2  acetal. 

This  view  of  the  composition  of  acetal  is  supported  by  the  fact 
that  methyl  or  amyl  can  be  substituted  for  either  one  or  both  mole- 
cules of  ethyl  in  the  combination. 

According  to  other  opinions,  acetal  may  be  considered  as  a  com- 
bination of  aldehyde  and  aldehyde  ether  :  — 

C2H4O    aldehyde 

C4H10O  aldehyde  ether 

C6H,4O2  acetal, 

or  as  a  combination  of  aldehyde  with  ethyl  alcohol,  one  molecule 
of  water  in  the  latter  having  been  replaced  by  the  aldehyde  :  — 

Ethyl  alcohol  :  2(C.H6O)  —  JI2O  =  C4H/) 

aldehyde      C9H,O 
acetal  C6HJ4O2 

By  keeping  in  view  the  fact  that  the  process  of  the  formation 
of  vinegar  is  an  oxidation  of  the  alcohol  which  does  not  proceed 
with  equal  energy  in  all  parts  of  the  apparatus,  it  will  be  under- 
stood that  during  this  process  aldehyde,  acetal,  and  acetic  ether 
can  be  formed  which,  if  the  operation  be  correctly  conducted,  will 
be  finally  converted  into  acetic  acid,  though  small  quantities  of 
them  will  be  found  in  the  vinegar  when  just  finished  and  exert 
an  influence  upon  its  constitution. 


42  VINEGAR,   CIDER,    AND    FRUIT-WINES. 

Acetic  Acid. 

Pure  acetic  acid,  C2H4O21,  cannot  be  directly  obtained  from 
vinegar,  but  only  from  acetates  by  methods  which  will  be  described 
later  on.  The  strongest  acetic  acid  which  can  be  prepared  is 
known  as  glacial  acetic  acid,  from  its  crystallizing  in  icy  leaflets 
at  about  40°  F.  Above  a  temperature  of  about  60°  F.  the 
crystals  fuse  to  a  thin,  colorless  liquid  of  an  exceedingly  pungent 
and  wellrknown  odor.  When  diluted  it  has  a  pleasant  acid  taste 
and  agreeable  odor.  Pure  acetic  acid  is  a  powerful  restorative 
when  applied  to  the  nostrils  in  impending  fainting.  It  is  the 
strongest  of  the  organic  acids  and  nearly  as  acrimonious  as  sul- 
phuric acid.  When  dropped  on  the  skin  it  acts  as  an  escharotic, 
speedily  raising  a  blister  and  producing  much  heat  and  rapid 
inflammation  ;  when  taken  into  the  mouth  or  applied  to  any 
mucous  membrane  it  blackens  like  sulphuric  acid.  Highly  con- 
centrated acetic  acid  is  a  solvent  of  many  volatile  oils,  resins, 
albuminates, and  glue;  the  ability  to  dissolve  lemon  oil  is  used  in 
the  practice  as  a  test  for  the  high  concentration  of  acetic  acid, 
since  in  the  presence  of  only  2  per  cent,  of  water  in  the  acid 
lemon  oil  is  no  longer  dissolved  by  it. 

The  specific  gravity  of  pure  acetic  acid  is  at  59°  F. : — 

According  to  Onderaans 1.0553 

Roscoe 1.0564 

Kopp 1.0590 

Mendelejeff 1.0607 

Mohr 1.0600 

According  to  Mohr's  determinations,  the  specific  gravity  of 
pure  acetic  acid  varies  much  at  different  temperatures,  it  being 

1.0630  at     54.5°  F. 

1.0600  "     59.0  " 

1.0555  "i     68.0  " 
1.0498  77.0  " 

1.0480  79.0  " 

Mixtures  of  acetic  acid  and  water  show  a  peculiar  behavior  in 
regard  to  their  specific  gravity ;  the  latter  rises  steadily  until  the 
content  of  water  amounts  to  from  20  to  23  per  cent. ;  the  density 
of  the  liquid  then  diminishes  so  that  a  mixture  containing  46 


PRODUCTS  OF  ACETOUS  FERMENTATION.         43 

per  cent,  of  water  shows  the  same  specific  gravity  as  the  anhy- 
drous acid.  From  this  point  on,  the  specific  gravities  of  the 
mixtures  decrease  with  the  increase  in  the  content  of  water. 

This  peculiar  behavior  of  the  mixtures  renders  the  accurate 
determination  of  the  content  of  acid  in  a  concentrated  mixture 
by  means  of  the  aerometer  impossible.  There  are  a  number 
of  determinations  of  specific  gravities  of  acetic  acid  with  varying 
contents  of  water  (by  Mohr,  von  der  Toorn,  Oudemans,  etc.), 
but  they  differ  considerably  from  each  other,  like  the  tables  at  the 
end  of  this  volume,  so  that,  while  the  specific  gravity  test  answers 
very  well  for  the  determination  of  the  amount  of  anhydrous  acid 
in  dilute  solutions,  it  is  very  fallacious  when  the  acid  increases  in 
strength,  and  an  accurate  determination  can  only  be  effected  by 
chemical  methods. 

Highly  concentrated  acetic  acid  has  recently  found  considerable 
application  in  photography  and  surgery,  and  frequently  occurs  in 
commerce  in  the  form  of  so-called  vinegar  essence.  The  acetic 
acid  occurring  under  this  name  is  generally  prepared  from  wood 
vinegar  and  is  only  fit  for  the  preparation  of  table  vinegar  when 
a  chemical  examination  shows  no  trace  of  tar  products,  which  are 
formed  in  abundance,  besides  acetic  acid,  in  the  dry  distillation  of 
wood. 

In  regard  to  the  composition  of  acetic  acid,  it  may  be  men- 
tioned that  one  atom  of  hydrogen  can  be  readily  replaced  by 
univalent  metals  or  univalent  compound  radicals  which  may  be 
expressed  by 

H      lo 

c2H3or 

TT   ~j 

wherebv  the  acetic  acid  is  considered 'as  water  tr  >  O    in    which 

M  J 
one   atom    of  hydrogen  is   replaced   by  the  compound  radical 

C2H3O  =  acetyl 

If  the  one  atom  of  hydrogen  standing  by  itself  be  replaced  by 
a  univalent  metal  a  neutral  acetate  is  formed,  for  instance  :— 

Na        )Q 
C2H3OJC 
or  sodium  acetate. 

If  this  atom  of  hydrogen  is  replaced  by  a  uuivalent  compound 


44  VINEGAR,    CIDER,    AND    FRUIT-WINES. 

radical,  for  instance  by  methyl  CH3  or  ethyl  C2H3,  the  so-called 

compound  ethers  are  formed. 

CH3      \n  C2H5     \0 

C2H5Oj°  C2H30/C 

Acetic  acid-methyl  ether.  Acetic  acid— ethyl  ether. 

If  a  bivalent  metal  or  compound  radical  yields  a  neutral  com- 
bination with  awtic  acid,  the  substituted  hydrogen  in  two  mole- 
cules of  acetic  acid  must  evidently  be  replaced  by  this  bivalent 
metal,  for  instance  : — 

Ca  \0 

2(CaH/>)  j   J* 

Neutral  calcium  acetate. 

Theoretical  Yields  of  Acetic  Acid. 

In  industries  based  upon  chemical  processes  a  distinction  is 
made  between  the  theoretical  and  practical  yields. 

By  theoretical  yield  is  understood  the  quantity  of  the  body 
to  be  manufactured  which  would  result  if  no  losses  of  substance 
were  connected  with  the  chemical  process ;  the  practical  yield, 
on  the  other  hand,  is  that  in  Avhich  such  losses  are  taken  into 
account,  the  average  being  ascertained  by  long-continued  compari- 
son of  daily  yields.  The  closer  the  practical  yield  approaches 
the  theoretical,  the  more  suitable  the  method  pursued  in  the  fabri- 
cation evidently  is,  and  thus  the  manufacturer,  who  has  a  clear  idea 
of  the  theoretical  yield,  can  readily  judge  of  the  value  of  his 
method  by  comparing  it  with  the  practical  yield  attained. 

Now  suppose  no  loss  of  substance  (by  evaporation  or  forma- 
tion of  other  combinations)  occurs  in  the  conversion  of  alcohol 
into  acetic  acid,  it  can  be  readily  calculated  from  the  composition 
of  the  two  bodies  how  many  parts  by  weight  of  acetic  acid  can 
be  formed  from  a  determined  number  of  parts  by  weight  of 
alcohol. 

Alcohol  has  the  composition  C2H8O,  or  an  atomic  weight  of  46, 
because : — 

C9«     ......    24 

Hn  = 6 

O  = 16 

Makes  46 


PRODUCTS   OF   ACETOUS    FERMENTATION.  45 

The  composition  of  acetic  acid  is  C2H4O2  aud  its  molecular 
weight  60,  because  : — 

C2= 24 

H<- 4 

O2= 32 

Makes     .     .     60 

Hence  from  46  parts  by  weight  of  alcohol  60  parts  by  weight 
of  acetic  acid  may  be  formed,  or  by  reducing  the  ratio  to  100 
parts  of  alcohol  it  follows  that  100  parts  by  weight  of  alcohol 
must  yield  130.43478  parts  by  weight  of  acetic  acid.  (The 
increase  in  weight  has  to  be  attributed  to  the  absorption  of  one 
atom  of  oxygen,  atomic  weight  16,  against  the  loss  of  two  atoms 
of  hydrogen,  atomic  weight  2.)  Since  these  two  atoms  of  hydro- 
gen are  themselves  oxidized  to  water  by  the  absorption  of  oxygen, 
the  total  yield  from  100  parts  by  weight  of  alcohol  would  be  : — 

Acetic  acid 130.43478  parts  by  weight. 

Water  39.13043     "      "       " 


Total       ....     169.56521  parts  by  weight. 

The  quantity  of  oxygen  required  to  form  acetic  acid  and  water 
from  46  parts  by  weight  of  alcohol,  amounts  to  32  parts  by 
weight,  hence  for  100  to  69.562  parts  by  weight.  The  oxygen 
is  conducted  to  the  alcohol  in  the  form  of  air,  and  it  can  be 
readily  calculated  how  much  of  the  latter  is  required  to  convert 
a  given  quantity  of  alcohol,  for  instance  100  grammes,  into  acetic 
acid.  In  round  numbers  the  air  contains  in  100  parts  by  weight 
23  parts  by  weight  of  oxygen.  Since  1  liter  of  air  of  68°  F., 
i.  e.,  of  that  temperature  which  should  at  the  least  always  prevail 
in  the  vinegar  generators,  weighs  1.283  grammes,  the  oxygen  con- 
tained in  it  weighs  0.29509  grammes.  Since,  as  above  stated, 
69.562  parts  by  weight  are  necessary  for  the  conversion  of  100 
parts  by  weight  of  alcohol  into  acetic  acid,  it  follows  that  235.70 
liters  of  air  are  required  for  the  same  purpose. 

Examinations  as  to  the  content  of  oxygen  in  the  'air  escaping 
from  weir-conducted  vinegar  generators  have  shown  that  on  an 
average  only  one-quarter  of  the  entire  content  of  oxygen  is  con- 
sumed in  the  formation  of  vinegar;  hence  four  times  the  theorcti- 


46  VIXEGAR,   CIDER,    AND   FRUIT- WIXES. 

cally  calculated  quantity  of  air  must  pass  through  the  apparatus 
to  completely  convert  the  alcohol  into  acetic  acid.  Hence  100 
grammes  of  alcohol  require  at  least  942.92  liters  of  air  for  their 
conversion  into  acetic  acid,  and,  without  being  far  wrong,  it  may 
be  assumed  that  in  a  vinegar  factory,  in  round  numbers,  1000 
liters  or  one  cubic  metre  of  air  are  required  for  every  100  grammes 
of  alcohol  to  be  converted  into  acetic  acid. 

A  vinegar  generator  can,  on  an  average,  convert  daily  3  liters 
of  alcohol  into  acetic  acid ;  3  liters  of  absolute  alcohol  (specific 
gravity  0.794)  weigh  2382  grammes.  Now,  if,  as  stated  above, 
1  cubic  metre  of  air  is  required  for  every  100  grammes  of  alcohol, 
it  follows  that  23.82  cubic  metres,  or  23,820  liters  of  air  must 
pass  daily  through  each  vinegar  generator  in  operation.* 

Calculated  to  16  working  hours  a  day,  somewhat  more  than  0.4 
liters  (more  accurately  0.413  liters)  must  pass  every  second  through 
the  generator  in  order  to  supply  the  quantity  of  oxygen  required 
for  the  conversion  of  alcohol  into  acetic  acid. 

Since  the  formation  of  vinegar  has  theoretically  to  be  con- 
sidered as  a  process  of  combustion,  in  which  of  46  parts  by 
weight  of  alcohol  2  parts  by  weight  of  hydrogen,  or  of  100  parts 
by  weight  of  alcohol  4.34782  parts  by  weight  of  hydrogen,  are 
consumed,  the  quantity  of  heat  liberated  by  the  conversion  of 
100  parts  by  weight  of  alcohol  into  acetic  acid  can  also  be  calcu- 
lated. By  combustion  1  gramme  of  hydrogen  yields  34.126 
units  of  heat,  and  hence  4.34782  grammes  of  hydrogen  148.373 
units  of  heat,  i.  e.,  in  the  conversion  of  100  grammes  of  alcohol 
into  acetic  acid  sufficient  heat  is  liberated  to  heat  148.373  kilo- 
grammes of  water  from  0°  C.  to  1°  0.,  or  1.48  kilogrammes  from 
0°  C.  to  boiling,  and  thus  a  considerable  development  of  heat  is 
caused  by  the  rise  of  temperature  in  the  apparatus  in  which  a 
vigorous  formation  of  vinegar  takes  place. 

In  answer  to  the  question,  what  can  the  practical  manufacturer 
of  vinegar  learn  from  these  theoretical  explanations,  it  may  be 
said  there  are  many  points  of  great  importance  for  the  execution 
of  the  work.  The  calculation  of  air  shows  that  the  alcohol 

*  It  is  always  supposed  that  the  manufacture  of  vinegar  is  effected  in 
generators  used  in  the  quick  process. 


PRODUCTS   OF   ACETOUS    FERMENTATION.  47 

requi res  a Jarge  suppl y}  but  the  generators  in  general  use  in  the 
quick  process  are  by  no  means  so  arranged  as  to  be  adequate  to 
ie^  theoretical  demands.  In  fact  it  may  be  said  that  most  of 
them  allow~only  a  limited  change  of  air  and  consequently  work 
slower  than  they  actually  could.  That  the  generators  now  in  use 
are  deficient  is  conclusively  proved  by  the  numerous  constructions 
which  have_  been  proposed,  especially  in  modern  times,  whose 
chief  aim  isjx)  afford  a  free  passage  to  the  air. 

The  fact  that  considerable  heat  is  developed  in  the  interior  of 
the  generator  deserves  consideration  in  connection  with  the  heat- 
ing of  the  manufactory.  If  the  temperature  of  the  latter  is  so 
high  as  nearly  to  approach  the  optimum,  i.  e.,  the  temperature 
most  favorable  for  the  formation  of  vinegar,  it  may  easily  happen 
that,  in  consequence  of  the  vigorous  oxidation  of  the  alcohol,  the 
temperature  in  the  interior  of  the  generators  is  increased  to  such 
an  extent  as  to  exceed  this  optimum,  and  the  activity  of  the 
vinegar  ferment  would  immediately  diminish  and  even  cease 
altogether. 

If,  on  the  other  hand,  the  temperature  of  the  workroom  is 
kept  too  low,  the  generators  act  sluggishly  and  do  not  produce  as 
much  as  when  the  correct  conditions  are  observed.  But  as  by 
raising  the  temperature  of  the  workroom  the  activity  of  the 
generators  is  increased,  too  low  a  temperature  is  less  injurious  to 
the  regular  course  of  the  process  than  too  high  a  one. 

The  optimum  of  the  formation  of  vinegar  is  at  about  86°  F., 
and  hence  the  aim  should  be  to  maintain  this  temperature  as 
nearly  as  possible  in  the  interior  of  the  generator.  The  temperature 
of  the  workroom  must,  however,  be  kept  sufficiently  low,  so  that 
the  optimum  in  the  interior  of  the  generator  cannot  be  exceeded. 

Another  factor  may  here  be  mentioned.  The  closer  the  tem- 
perature in  the  interior  of  the  generator  approaches  the  optimum 
mid  the  quicker  the  supply  of  air,  the  more  alcohol  and  acetic 
acid  are  lost  by  evaporation,  or,  in  other  words,  the  smaller  the 
yield  ofacetic  acid.  By  the  skillful  utilization  of  conditions  the 
manufacturer  must  aim  to  reduce  this  loss  to  a  minimum,  and 
this  can  be  best  effected  by  a  suitable  arrangement  of  the  work- 
room. By  regulating  the  change  of  air  so  that  it  is  not  greater 
than  absolutely  necessary,  the  air  will  soon  become  so  saturated 


48  VINEGAR,    CIDER,    AND    FRUIT-WINES. 

with  vapors  of  alcohol  and  acetic  acid  that  no  further  loss  will 
take  place  until  the  renewing  of  the  air  in  the  workroom  appears 
necessary.  In  which  manner  the  manufacturer  is  to  work  in 
order  to  carry  on  the  business  most  advantageously  depends^  on 
the  conditions  of  trade.  If  large  orders  have  to  be  filled,  he  will 
endeavor  to  increase  the  capacity  of  the  generators  to  the  utmost 
by  maintaining  the  optimum  of  temperature  and  a  vigorous 
change  of  air  in  them,  and  in  this  case  must  submit  to  the  in- 
creased losses  inseparably  connected  with  this  high  performance. 
If,  on  the  other  hand,  he  works  for  stock,  he  will  not  force  the 
capacity  of  the  generators  to  the  utmost,  but  in  order  to  work  as 
cheaply  as  possible  direct  his  attention  to  reduce  the  losses  to  a 
minimum. 

Yields  of  Acetic  Acid  obtained  in  the  Practice. 

By  keeping  for  some  time  an  accurate  account  of  the  actual 
yields  and  comparing  them  with  those  theoretically  obtainable, 
the  former  will  be  found  to  fall  more  or  less  short  of  the  latter, 
and  the  difference  will  be  the  smaller  the  better  the  method  of 
fabrication  in  use. 

In  a  vinegar  factory  occur  many  unavoidable  losses,  the 
sources  of  which  have  been  indicated  iu  the  preceding  explana- 
tions ;  alcohol  and  acetic  acid  evaporate,  and  besides  a  portion  of 
them  is  entirely  destroyed  by  too  much  oxidation.  Now  a  Joss 
by  evaporation,  etc.,  of  ten  per  cent,  of  the  quantity  of  alcohol 
originally  used  must  no  doubt  be  considered  a  large  one,  but  from 
numerous  observations  it  may  be  asserted  that  even  with  the 
greatest  care  in  working  the  loss  in  vinegar  factories  is  not  less 
than  from  15  to  20  per  cent.,  and  may  even  be  as  much  as  30 
per  cent. 

These  enormous  losses  of  substance  conclusively  prove  the  de- 
fectiveness  of  the  processes  in  general  use  and  the  urgent  neces- 
sity for  reformation.  The  experiments  made  for  this  purpose, 
and  which  have  been  especially  directed  towards  a  remodelling  of 
the  apparatus  used,  cannot  be  considered  entirely  satisfactory, 
though  they  were  partially  instituted  by  practical  manufacturers, 
who,  however,  lacked  the  necessary  theoretical  education. 


PRODUCTS  OF  ACETOUS  FERMENTATION.         49 

The  principal  requirement  in  our  opinion  is  to  provide  the 
generator  with  a  suitable  ventilator,  which  will  allow  of  the  pas- 
sage through  the  generator  of  exactly  the  quantity  of  air  required 
foTtEe  conversion  of  the  alcohol  into  acetic  acid,  and  is  so  con- 
structed that  the  vapors  of  alcohol  and  acetic  acid  (or  at  least  the 
larger  portion)  carried  away  by  the  current  of  air  are  condensed 
and  thus  regained. 

A  vinegar  generator  has  frequently  been  compared  to  a  furnace, 
and  in  continuation  of  this  comparison  it  may  be  said,  that  the 
construction  generally  used  is  a  furnace  lacking  every  arrange- 
ment for  the  regulation  of  combustion.  In  such  a  furnace  as 
much  fuel  is  burned  as  corresponds  to  the  quantity  of  oxygen 
entering,  while  in  a  furnace  of  suitable  construction  the  combus- 
tion of  fuel  can  be  accurately  regulated  by  increasing  or  de- 
creasing at  will  the  supply  of  air  by  means  of  a  simple  con- 
trivance. 

A  vinegar  generator  of  suitable  construction  should  be  provided 
with  a  similar  arrangement.  If  the  thermometer  on  the  apparatus 
shows  too  low  a  temperature — hence  too  slow  a  process  of  oxida- 
tion— the  course  of  the  operation  can  in  a  short  time  be  accel- 
erated by  the  production  of  a  stronger  current  of  air  and  the 
temperature  correspondingly  increased.  If,  on  the  other  hand, 
oxidation  proceeds  too  rapidly,  which  on  account  of  the  high 
temperature  then  prevailing  in  the  apparatus  is  accompanied  by 
considerable  loss  of  substance,  it  can  be  quickly  reduced  to 
within  the  correct  limits  by  decreasing  the  current  of  air.  An 
apparatus  unprovided  with  a  ventilator  is  left  more  or  less  to 
itself,  while  one  provided  with  such  an  arrangement  is  under  the 
entire  control  of  the  manufacturer. 


50  VINEGAR.   CIDER,   AND   FRUIT-WINES. 


CHAPTER  V. 

METHODS   OF   FABRICATION   OF   VINEGAR. 

THE  fabrication  of  vinegar  from  wine  is  undoubtedly  the 
oldest  and  most  simple  method  known,  since  it  is  only  necessary 
to  leave  the  wine  to  itself  at  a  sufficiently  high  temperature  to 
find  it  within  a  certain  time  converted  into  vinegar.  A  similar 
process  takes  place  in  all  fermented  fruit  juices  resembling  wine. 

It  would,  therefore,  seem  proper  to  commence  the  description 
of  the  various  methods  of  fabrication  of  vinegar  with  this  simple 
process,  but  for  reasons  of  an  entirely  practical  nature  it  has 
been  concluded  not  to  do  so. 

Since  alcoholic  fluids  directly  formed  by  the  vinous  fermenta- 
tion of  sacchariferous  plant  juices  possess  the  property  of  chang- 
ing under  circumstances  favorable  to  acetous  fermentation  into 
vinegar,  it  is  evident  that  the  latter  can  be  prepared  from  them, 
and,  in  fact,  it  is  possible  to  prepare  it  from  all  sweet  fruits  and 
parts  of  plants,  such  as  cherries,  strawberries,  figs,  bananas,  etc., 
as  well  as  from  the  juice  of  the  sugar-cane,  beet,  chicory  root,  etc. 

Honey,  which  represents  a  concentrated  solution  of  ferment- 
able sugar,  as  well  as  crystallized  cane  sugar,  can  likewise  be  in- 
directly used  for  the  preparation  of  vinegar,  since  solutions  of 
either  can  be  brought  into  vinous  fermentation  and  the  resulting 
alcohol  converted  into  acetic  acid. 

By  malting  grain  a  peculiar  body  called  diastase  is  formed, 
which  possesses  the  property  of  converting  starch  into  ferment- 
able sugar,  and  upon  this  fact  is  based  the  manufacture  of  beer 
and  alcohol.  In  an  indirect  manner  (the  starch  having  to  be 
converted  first  into  sugar,  and  the  latter  into  alcohol)  it  is,  there- 
fore, possible  to  prepare  vinegar  from  every  substance  containing 
starch,  and  for  this  reason  we  can  speak  of  grain  and  malt 
vinegars.  The  beer  prepared  from  the  malt  containing  already 


METHODS   OF   FABRICATION   OF  VINEGAR.  51 

a  certain  quantity  of  alcohol  can  thus  be  directly  converted  into 
vinegar. 

Alcohol  furnishing  ultimately  the  material  for  the  fabrication 
of  vinegar,  the  direct  use  of  dilute  alcohol  or  spirit  of  wine  for  the 
manufacture  of  vinegar  became  obvious.  By  the  employment  of 
a  suitable  process,  i.  e.,  one  corresponding  to  the1  laws  of  acetous 
fermentation,  it  was  found  that  the  conversion  of  dilute  alcohol 
into  acetic  acid  could  be  effected  in  a  much  shorter  time  than  by 
the  old  method,  and  upon  this  process  is  based  the  quick  method 
of  fabrication  now  in  general  use.  A  distinction  may,  therefore, 
be  made  between  two  principal  methods  of  fabrication,  viz.,  the 
older  or  slow  process,  which  requires  more  time,  and  the  more 
modern  or  quick  process. 

In  the  old  process  many  modifications  are  found,  which  are 
partially  based  upon  old  usage  and  partially  upon  the  difference 
in  the  chemical  composition  of  the  raw  material  used.  Beer,  for 
instance,  which  contains  only  about  4  per  cent,  of  alcohol  and 
a  large  quantity  of  extractive  substances  (sugar,  dextrin,  salts, 
etc.),  requires  a  different  treatment  from  wine,  which  contains  on 
an  average  10  per  cent,  of  alcohol,  but  scarcely  2  per  cent,  of 
extractive  substances.  Fruit-wines  (cider,  etc.),  with  only  5  to  ft 
per  cent,  of  alcohol  but  a  large  quantity  of  extractive  substances, 
again  require  different  treatment  from  grape  wine,  etc.,  so  that, 
in  a  certain  sense,  it  may  be  said  there  are  as  many  different 
methods  of  fabricating  vinegar  as  there  are  fundamental  materials, 
and  by  taking  into  consideration  the  difference  in  the  chemical 
composition  of  the  latter,  it  is  evident  that  there  must  be  just  as 
many  varieties  of  vinegar.  Besides  acetic  acid  and  a  certain 
amount  of  water,  every  vinegar  contains  other  substances,  which, 
though  frequently  only  present  in  very  minute  quantities,  never- 
theless exert  considerable  influence  upon  its  properties. 

Even  vinegar  obtained  from  dilute  alcohol  shows  differences  in 
odor,  which  depend  on  the  material  used  in  the  preparation  of 
the  specific  alcohol.  Potato  alcohol  always  contains  traces  of 
potato  fusel  oil  (amyl  alcohol),  while  certain  fusel  oils  are  found 
in  alcohol  prepared  from  grain  or  molasses.  In  the  oxidation  of 
the  alcohol  by  the  vinegar  ferment  these  fusel  oils  are  also  oxi- 


52  VINEGAR,    CIDER,    AND   FRUIT-WINES. 

dized  and  converted  into  combinations  distinguished  by  their 
peculiar  and  very  strong  odor. 

Though  these  bodies  occur  in  the  vinegar  in  such  minute  quan- 
tities that  they  can  scarcely  be  determined  by  chemical  analysis, 
an  expert  can  detect  them  by  the  sense  of  smell,  and  from  the 
specific  odor  of  the  vinegar  form  a  conclusive  judgment  as  to  the 
material  used  in  its  preparation. 

The  differences  in  vinegar  from  wine,  fruit,  beer,  and  malt  are 
still  more  prominent,  and  extend  not  only  to  the  odor  but  also  to 
the  taste.  Besides  a  specific  odoriferous  principle  every  wine 
contains  oenanthic  ether,  tartar,  tartaric  and  succinic  acids,  gly- 
cerin, and  a  series  of  extractive  substances  not  thoroughly  known. 
The  odoriferous  substances  and  the  oenanthic  ether  also  undergo 
alteration  in  the  oxidation  of  alcohol,  and  are  converted  into 
other  odoriferous  combinations,  with  such  a  characteristic  odor 
that  wine  vinegar  can  at  once  be  recognized  as  such  by  it.  On 
account  of  the  presence  of  so  many  substances  possessing  a 
specific  taste,  that  of  the  wine  vinegar  must,  of  course,  differ 
from  that  of  pure  dilute  acetic  acid. 

Similar  conditions  prevail  in  fruit-wine,  beer,  malt-extract,  etc., 
and  hence  vinegar  prepared  from  these  fluids  must  possess  definite 
properties. 


CHAPTER  VI. 

QUICK   PROCESS   OF   FABRICATION   OF    VINEGAR. 

^\ 

IN  1823  Schutzenbach  conceived  the  idea  that  by  greatly  en- 
larging the  relative  surfaces  of  contact  of  the  alcoholic  solution 
and  air  containing  oxygen,  the  process  of  acetification  would  be 
greatly  facilitated.  His  experiments  proved  successful,  and  soon 
after  the  quick  vinegar  process  was  generally  adopted.  Analo- 
gous processes  were  nearly  at  the  same  time  invented,  in  Germany 
by  Wagmann,  and  in  England  by  Ham. 

The  principle  involved  of  course  depends  on  an  extreme 
division  of  the  liquid  being  effected.  This  is  very  skilfully  con- 


QUICK   PROCESS   OF   FABRICATION   OF   VINEGAR.  53 

trivcd.  By  making  the  alcoholic  solution  percolate  slowly 
through  and  diffuse  over  a  mass  of  shavings,  wooden  blocks, 
pieces  of  coal  or  cork,  etc.,  it  forms  a  very  thin  layer,  the  surface 
of  which  is  very  extensive,  and  is  therefore  better  adapted  for 
the  chemical  appropriation  of  the  oxygen  in  the  current  of  air 
which  is  transmitted  over  it.  The  mass  of  shavings,  etc.,  serves 
not  only  for  the  division  of  the  liquid  into  fine  drops  but  also  as 
a  carrier  of  the  vinegar  ferment. 

It  will  be  readily  understood  that  this  arrangement  presents  in 
a  high  degree  all  the  conditions  required  for  the  formation  of 
vinegar :  the  vinegar  ferment  upon  the  shavings  acquires  from 
the  liquid  all  the  substances  required  for  its  maintenance  and 
augmentation,  and  by  the  current  of  air  passing  through  between 
the  shavings  is  enabled  to  oxidize  the  alcohol  to  acetic  acid.  This 
process  taking  place  simultaneously  on  thousands  of  points  in  a 
normally  working  generator  explains  why  a  large  quantity  of 
alcohol  can  in  a  comparatively  short  time  be  converted  into 
acetic  acid.  The  term  quick  process  is  hence  very  appropriate  - 
for  this  method,  it  differing  from  the  older  slow  process  only  in 
less  time  being  required  for  its  execution ;  the  chemical  processes 
are  the  same  in  both  cases. 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  generator,  technically  called  "  gradu- 
ator,"  used  in  the  quick  process  may  be  compared  to  a  furnace  in 
which  the  fuel  (in  this  case  the  alcoholic  fluid)  is  introduced  from 
above  and  the  air  from  below.  The  spaces  between  the  shavings, 
etc.,  may  be  compared  to  the  interstices  of  a  grate ;  combustion 
takes  place  on  the  points  of  contact  of  the  alcoholic  fluid,  vinegar 
ferment,  and  air.  The  product  of  (partial)  combustion — the 
vinegar  —  collects  in  a  reservoir  in  the  lower  part  of  the 
generator. 

Eachj^enerator,  as  previously  stated,  requires  about  0.4  liter  of 
air  per  second,  which  must  ascend  uniformly  from  below  through 
tKeTnass  of  shavings,  etc.  At  the  first  glance  this  would  seem 
very  simple,  but  its  practical  execution  is  accompanied  by  many 
difficulties,  and  hence  a  large  number  of  various  constructions  of 
generators  have  been  proposed  by  which  this  object  is  claimed  to 
lie  best  attained. 


54  VINEGAR,   CIDER,    AND    FRUIT-WINES. 

Arrangement  of  the  Generators. 

A  generator  consists  of  a  large  vessel  divided  into  three  spaces 
above  one  another,  the  uppermost  serving  for  the  division  of  the 
alcoholic  liquid  into  many  small  drops ;  in  the  centre  one,  which 
forms  the  largest  part  of  the  apparatus,  the  alcoholic  liquid  is 
converted  into  vinegar,  while  the  lower  one  serves  for  the  collec- 
tion of  the  vinegar. 

The  best  form  of  the  generator  is  that  of  a  truncated  cone. 
This  form  oifers  to  the  alcoholic  liquid  in  its  passage  from  the 
upper  part  of  the  generator  the  opportunity  of  spreading  over  a 
constantly  increasing  surface,  and  by  thus  coming  in  contact  with 
the  fresh  air  entering  the  lower  part  of  the  apparatus  its  oxida- 
tion must  evidently  be  promoted.  The  current  of  air  in  passing 
from  below  to  above  yields  a  certaiu  portion  of  its  oxygen  in  .the 
lower  part  of  the  apparatus,  and  if  it  were  allowed  to  ascend  in 
a  vessel  of  a  purely  cylindrical  shape,  the  alcoholic  fluid  running 
down  would  come  in  contact  with  air  quite  poor  in  oxygen. 
Hence  this  evil  must  be  sought  to  be  overcome  by  the  accelera- 
tion of  the  motion  of  the  air  upwards,  which  is  accomplished  by 
giving  the  vessel  the  form  of  a  slightly  truncated  cone. 

The  generator,  Fig.  3,  consists  of  the  vat  Kof  larch,  fir,  or  other 
durable  wood.  The  use  of  oak  cannot  be  recommended,  partially 
because  of  its  being  too  expensive,  and  further  on  account  of  being 
so  rich  in  extractive  substances  that  a  generator  constructed  of  it 
has  to  be  several  times  lixiviated  with  water  before  use,  as  other- 
wise the  vinegar  prepared  in  it  would  for  a  long  time  acquire  a  disa- 
greeable tang  and  dark  color.  In  the  upper  portion  of  the  vat  is  a 
perforated  wooden  disk  S,  and  in  the  lower  a  false  bottom  of  laths, 
the  so-called  lath-bottom  L.  The  aperture  A  serves  for  the  dis- 
charge of  the  fluid  collecting  underneath  the  lath-bottom.  The 
cover  D,  the  arrangement  of  which  will  be  described  later  on, 
serves  for  regulating  the  draught  of  air  in  the  generator. 

The  hoops  of  the  generators,  as  well  as  all  other  metallic  parts 
in  the  factory,  should  IK?  coated  with  good  linseed-oil  varnish  or 
asphaltum  lacquer,  and  care  should  be  had  immediately  to  repair 
any  injury  to  this  coating,  as  otherwise  strong  rusting  is  caused 


QUICK   PROCESS   OF   FABRICATION   OF   VINEGAR. 


55 


by  the  vapors  of  acetic  acid  contained  in  the  air  of  the  work- 
room. 

In  the  lower  portion  of  the  generator,  holes,  0,  are  bored. 
These  holes  are  intended  for  the  entrance  of  air,  and  in  number 

Fig.  3. 


General  Form  of  a  Generator. 

may  be  as  many  as  desired,  since  the  regulation  of  the  current  of 
air  is  not  to  be  effected  on  the  lower  portion  of  the  apparatus,  but 
on  the  cover. 

There  is  considerable  variation  in  the  dimensions  of  the  gene- 
rators, some  having  only  a  height  of  5  feet,  with  a  lower  diameter 
of  3  feet  3  inches,  and  others  again  a  height  of  20  feet  or  more, 
with  a  diameter  of  up  to  6|  feet.  The  small  generators  have 
the  disadvantage  of  rapidly  yielding  heat  to  the  exterior,  and 
hence  a  correspondingly  high  temperature  must  be  maintained  in 
the  workroom  in  order  to  keep  up  the  proper  degree  of  heat  in 
their  interior.  On  the  other  hand,  generators  of  considerable 
height  have  the  disadvantage  of  the  shavings,  etc.,  with  which 
the  centre  space  is  filled,  becoming  strongly  compressed  by  their 


56  VINEGAR,   CIDER,   AND    FRUIT-WINES. 

1  / 

ownjweight,  thus  obstructing  the  proper  passage  of  the  air^  It 
has  been  sought  to  overcome  this  evil  by  placing  several  false 
lath-bottoms  in  the  generator,  in  order  to  divide  the  weight  of 
the  filling  into  as  many  smaller  weights  as  there  are  lath-bottoms. 
Bnt^  this  arrangement  is  also  attended  with  inconveniences^  jt 
being  difficult  to  maintain  a  sufficiently  strong  draught^ofjairjLn^ 
generators  of  such  height. 

Some  manufacturers  hold  that  the  production  of  very  strong 
vinegar  containing  11  to  12  per  cent,  of  acetic  acid  is  only  pos- 
sible in  very  tall  generators.  This  opinion  is,  however,  un- 
founded, the  manufacture  of  very  strong  vinegar  being  just  as 
well  or  rather  better  effected  in  small  generators  than  in  those  20 
feet  or  more  high,  which  besides  are  very  expensive. 

The  manufacture  of  vinegar  should  be  carried  on  in  a  room  with 
a  low  ceiling,  since  even  with  the  best  heating  arrangement  .the 
temperature  near  the  ceiling  is  always  much  higher  than  on  the 
floor.  However,  with  the  use  of  generators  20  feet  high  the 
ceiling  of  the  workroom  must  be  at  least  26  feet  high,  which 
makes  it  impossible  to  maintain  a  uniform  temperature,  as  the 
difference  between  the  upper  and  lower  parts  would  frequently 
amount  to  more  than  25°. 

The  most  suitable  generators  are  very  likely  those  with  a  height 
not  exceeding  10  feet,  and  a  lower  diameter  of  about  45  inches 
f^uud  an  upper  one  of  about  35  inches.     A  large  diameter,  to  be 
\  sure,  contributes  towards  the  maintenance  of  a  uniform  tempera- 
\  ture  in  the  generator,  but  it  has  the  disadvantage  of  making  it 
1  difficult  for  the  air  to  ascend  uniformly  through  all  parts  of  the 
filling.     This  evil  is  sought  to  be  overcome  by  placing  in  the 
centre  of  the  generator  a  tube  open  above  and  below  and  pro- 
vided on  the  sides  with  holes.     Such  tube,  however,  does  not 
produce  the  intended  favorable  effect  upon  the  draught  of  air  in 
the  parts  of  the  filling  surrounding  it,  experience  having  shown 
that  the  greater  portion  of  the  warm  current  of  air  ascending  .in 
the  interior  takes  the  nearest  road  to  the  tc-p,  i.  e.,  through  the 
tube,  without  passing  sideways  into  the  filling.     Every  generator 
of  suitable  construction  should  be  provided  with  a  well-fitting 
coyer.     In  this  cover,  Fig.  4,  are  bored  in  concentric  circles  holes 
which  are  intended  for  draught  apertures.     If  the  draught  of  air 


QUICK    PROCESS   OF    FABRICATION   OF   VINEGAR. 


57 


in  the  interior  is  too  great,  it  can  be  at  once  diminished  by  closing 
a  number  of  these  holes,  it  being  even  possible  to  direct  it  to- 
wards a  certain  portion  of  the  filling.  This  arrangement  is, 
however,  only  available  when  the  false  bottom  to  be  described 

Fig.  4. 


Cover  of  a  Generator  provided  with  Draught  Apertures. 

later  on  is  either  not  used  or  provided  with  a  number  of  short 
vertical  tubes  which  permit  the  passage  of  the  air. 

Many  generators  are  provided  with  a  number  of  obliquely 
bored  apertures  below  the  false  bottom  through  which  the  air  can 
escape.  This  is,  however,  attended  with  the  disadvantage  that 
a  regular  draught  of  air  only  takes  place  in  the  outer  layers  of 
filling  next  to  the  walls,  while  it  is  not  sufficiently  strong  in  the 
centre  of  the  apparatus.  It  is  also  incorrect  to  have  but  one  air 
aperture  in  the  cover,  which  can  be  enlarged  or  diminished  by 
means  of  a  slide.  In  a  generator  thus  arranged  the  current  of 
air  entering  below  will  naturally  pass  chiefly  through  the  conical 
portion  of  the  filling,  the  basis  of  which  is  formed  by  the  lower 
lath-bottom  and  the  apex  by  the  draught  aperture  in  the  cover. 
The  lower  portion  of  the  filling,  which  embraces  this  cone,  re- 
mains without  sufficient  ventilation  and  is  ineffective  as  regards 
the  oxidation  of  alcohol. 

In  Figs.  5  and  6  the  hatched  surfaces  terminated  by  the  dotted 


58 


VINEGAR,    CIDER,   AND   FRUIT- WINES. 


lines  illustrate  the  portions  of  the  generator  in  which,  with  the 
use  of  many  apertures  below  the  false  bottom  and  a  single  one  in 
the  centre  of  the  cover,  the  regular  current  of  air  from  below  to 


Fig.  5. 


Scheme  of  the  Incorrect  Conduction  of  Air  in  Vinegar  Generators. 

above  passes ;  though  a  current  of  air  takes  place  outside  of  these 
lines,  it  is  in  most  cases  too  weak,  and  consequently  the  entire 
available  space  of  the  generator  is  not  sufficiently  utilized. 

The  generators  may  also  be  entirely  open  below  and  stand  in  a 
shallow  tub,  which  serves  for  the  collection  of  the  vinegar ;  gen- 
erally, however,  the  lower  portion  of  the  generator  itself  is  used 
for  this  purpose,  and  is  provided  with  an  arrangement  for  the 


Self-acting  Discharge  Arrangement  on  the  lower  part  of  the  Generator. 


occasional  discharge  of  the  collected  fluid.     This  can  be  effected 
either  by  a  spigot  fixed  immediately  above  the  bottom,. or,  as  in 


QUICK   PROCESS   OF   FABRICATION   OF   VINEGAR. 


59 


Fig.  7,  by  a  glass  tube,  which  bends  upwards  nearly  as  high  as 
the  air-holes  and  then  curves  downward  so  as  to  discharge  the 
liquid,  when  it  rises  as  high  as  the  shelf  in  the  interior  of  the 
apparatus,  into  an  appropriate  vessel  placed  to  receive  it.  Simple 
as  this  arrangement  is,  it  is  scarcely  suitable  in  the  practice  on 
account  of  its  being  too  liable  to  breakage,  and  hence  it  is  better 
to  provide  the  generator  with  an  ordinary  spigot,  and  prevent  the 
vinegar  from  rising  too  high,  by  boring  about  J  inch  below  the 
draught  apertures  a  hole  in  which  is  fitted  a  pipe  leading  to  a 
tub.  The  vinegar  rising  to  the  height  of  this  pipe  will  commence 
to  run  off,  and  thus  give  warning  to  empty  the  generator  by 
opening  the  spigot. 

In  generators  of  older  construction  a  strong  hoop  is  fixed  about 
one  foot  from  the  top,  on  which  is  placed  a  perforated  disk  which 
serves  for  distributing  the  alcoholic  fluid  as  uniformly  as  possible 
over  the  entire  filling.  The  disk,  Fig.  8,  is  perforated  with 
numerous  holes  (about  400  with  a  disk  diameter  of  3  feet) 


Disk  of  a  Generator. 


arranged  in  concentric  circles.  These  holes  are  loosely  filled  with 
cotton  wick  or  packthread,  a  knot  being  made  at  the  top  end  to 
keep  them  from  falling  through.  The  threads  pass  down  to  the 
shavings,  and  serve  the  double  purpose  of  conducting  the  liquid 


60  VINEGAR,   CIDER,    AND   FRUIT-WINES. 

equally  through  the  body  of  the  generator  and  also  of  stopping  it 
from  passing  too  rapidly  through  it  (see  Fig.  9).  It  is  important  to 
pack  the  disk  so  tightly  against  the  walls  of  the  generator  that  none 
of  the  liquid  can  percolate,  which  is  best  effected  by  a  packing  of 
tow  and  coating  this  with  a  mixture  of  equal  parts  of  wax  and 
colophony.  The  dripping  of  the  alcoholic  fluid  through  the  disk 
taking  place  uniformly  only  when  the  latter  lies  perfectly  hori- 
zontal, great  care  must  be  exercised  in  placing  the  generator.  To 
prevent  warping  several  strong  cross  pieces  are  inserted  in  the 
lower  side  of  the  disk. 

Fig.  9. 


Cross  Section  of  the  Disk. 

As  previously  mentioned  the  current  of  air  must  pass  through 
all  portions  of  the  filling,  and  for  this  purpose  seven  short  glass 
tubes,  r  (Fig.  8),  about  J  inch  in  diameter,  are  inserted  in  the  disk. 
These  tubes  are  so  arranged  that  one  is  in  the  centre  of  the  disk 
and  the  others  in  a  circle  equidistant  from  the  centre  and  the 
periphery.  Upon  the  disk  is  placed  the  well-fitting  cover,  pro- 
vided with  an  aperture  for  the  passage  of  the  air.  This  aperture, 
about  3  inches  square,  is  provided  with  a  well-fitting  slide,  so 
that  it  can  be  made  larger  or  smaller  at  will.  As  previously 
stated,  it  is  more  suitable  to  provide  the  cover  with  a  large 
number  of  draught  holes  arranged  in  concentric  circles  and  to  fit 
each  hole  with  a  wooden  stopper.  By  withdrawing  or  inserting 
the  stoppers  the  draught  of  air  can  then  be  properly  regulated. 

To  effect  the  influx  of  air  from  below  in  such  a  manner  that  it 
not  only  takes  place  through  the  draught  holes  in  the  circumfer- 
ence, but  also  insures  its  conveyance  to  the  centre  of  the  appa- 
ratus, it  is  recommended  to  insert  in  the  centre  of  the  lower  part 
in  which  the  fluid  collects  a  tube,  R,  Fig.  10,  which  is  open  at 
both  ends  and  protected  above  by  the  hood  H  against  the  drop- 
ping in  of  alcoholic  liquid. 


QUICK    PROCESS   OF    FABRICATION   OF   VINEGAR. 


61 


A  uniform  distribution  of  the  alcoholic  liquid  upon  all  portions 
of  the  filling  of  the  apparatus  would  be  effected  if  about  the  same 
quantity  of  liquid  dripped  from  all  the  threads.  This  being,  how- 
ever, difficult  to  attain,  it  has  been  sought  to  give  the  disk  a  more 

Fig.  10. 


Generator  with  Air-tube  in  the  Lower  Portion. 

suitable  arrangement,  which  consists,  for  instance,  in  the  insertion 
of  small  wooden  tubes  with  a  small  aperture  on  the  side  (Fig.  11). 
This  arrangement,  though  very  suitable  in  itself,  becomes,  however, 
useless  in  case  of  the  slightest  warping  of  the  disk,  a  number  of 
the  tubes  being  then  raised  so  high  that  no  fluid  runs  through 
them  while  it  passes  in  a  full  stream  through  the  others. 

Fie.  11. 


Disk  with  Wooden  Tubes. 


These  evils  connected  with  the  use  of  a  disk  can  be  somewhat 
diminished  by  the  employment  of  a  so-called  "tilting  trough" 
(Figs.  12  and  13),  which  is  arranged  as  follows : — 


62  VINEGAR,   CIDER,   AND   FRUIT-WINES. 

Upon  a  perfectly  horizontal  axis  is  placed  a  rotatory,  trough- 
like  vessel  divided  by  a  partition  into  two  equal  parts. 

If  the  tilting  trough  is  in  the  position  shown  in  Fig.  12  the 
alcoholic  liquid  runs  through  the  cock,  placed  above,  into  the 
partition  marked  1. 


Fig.  12. 


Fig.  13. 


Tilting  Trough. 

As  soon  as  this  partition  is  filled  to  a  certain  height  it  turns 
over  in  consequence  of  the  disturbance  of  the  equilibrium  of  the 
trough  and  assumes  the  position  shown  in  Fig.  13.  In  this  posi- 
tion partition  2  is  gradually  filled  with  alcoholic  liquid,  the  trough 
then  tilts  back  into  position  1,  and  so  on. 

It  will  be  seen  that  with  the  assistance  of  such  a  tilting-trough 
the  same  quantities  of  liquid  can  always  be  poured  out  at  certain 
intervals,  and  that  this  arrangement  can  be  used  for  distributing 
the  alcoholic  liquid  upon  the  disk,  the  latter  in  this  case  being 
best  provided  with  holes  having  the  form  of  an  inverted  cone. 
The  apex  of  this  cone  forms  a  very  narrow  aperture  through 
which  the  alcoholic  liquid  poured  upon  the  disk  trickles  in  very 
thin  jets  upon  the  filling  of  the  generator. 

But  even  this  arrangement  is  not  free  from  objections ;  it  works 
entirely  satisfactorily  only  as  long  as  the  disk  remains  in  a  per- 
fectly horizontal  position.  In  the  more  modern  constructions  of 
vinegar  generators  the  disk  is  generally  entirely  omitted  and  the 
distribution  of  the  alcoholic  liquor  effected  by  a  so-called  "spar- 
ger," similar  to  the  one  used  in  beer  brewing  for  sprinkling  malt 
residues.  The  sparger  is  arranged  like  a  simple  turbine,  and  is 
moved  by  reaction  in  the  direction  opposite  to  that  in  which 
the  discharge  of  the  fluid  takes  place.  Spargers  used  in  vinegar 


3 


QUICK   PROCESS   OF   FABRICATION   OF   VINEGAR.  63 

factories  can  be  constructed  only  of  a  material  indifferent  to  the 
action  of  acetic  acid,  such  as  wood,  glass,  hard  rubber,  etc.  Their 
construction  will  be  understood  from  Figs.  14  and  15. 

Fig.  14. 


Sparger  (view  from  above). 

Into  a  hollow  cylinder  of  wood  are  screwed  four  thin  wooden 
tubes,  closed  at  both  ends  and  perforated  lengthwise  with  nume- 
rous small  holes ;  the  tubes  are  so  arranged  that  all  the  holes  are 

Fig.  15. 


Sparger  (cross-section). 

directed  towards  one  side.  The  basin  in  the  centre  is  closed  on 
top  by  a  glass  tube  about  20  inches  long  and  of  sufficient  width 
to  allow  of  the  passage  of  as  much  fluid  as  can  at  one  time  run 
off  through  all  the  lateral  tubes. 


64 


VINEGAR,   CIDER,   AND   FRUIT-WINES. 


The  principal  requisite  of  the  correct  working  of  the  sparger  is 
that  it  revolves  with  ease  around  its  vertical  axis.  This  is  effected 
by  placing  in  the  centre  of  the  vessel  a  glass  pin  drawn  out  to  a 
fine  point  and  running  in  a  small  glass  step  ;  the  vertical  glass 
tube  is  guided  in  a  sharp-edged  wooden  ring  fastened  to  a  stay 
placed  upon  the  cover  of  the  generator  (Fig.  16).  The  sparger 
finds  its  centre  of  motion  upon  a  lath  inserted  in  the  direction  of 
the  diameter  of  the  generator.  This  lath  is  placed  at  such  a  height 
that  the  sparger  can  move  freely  between  it  and  the  cover  of  the 
generator.  The  sparger  being  in  position  as  shown  in  Fig.  16,  a 
funnel-form  vessel,  through  which  the  alcoholic  fluid  is  poured  in, 
is  placed  upon  the  glass  tube. 


Sparger  placed  in  the  Generator. 

^  By  now  pouring  through  this  funnel-form  vessel  the  alcoholic 
liquid  in  a  sufficiently  strong  stream,  so  that  during  its  influx  the 
glass  tube  remains  filled,  it  passes  in  fine  jets  through  the  lateral 
openings,  and,  the  sparger  revolving  in  an  opposite  direction,  is 
distributed  in  the  form  of  a  fine  spray  over  the  filling  in  the  gene- 
rator. 

The  use  of  the  sparger  overcomes  the  difficulties  frequently 
occurring  with  the  disk,  especially  as  regards  the  position  of  the 
latter,  and  the  circulation  of  air  through  the  apparatus  also  takes 


Q 

QUICK    PROCESS   OF   FABRICATION   OF   VINEGAR.  65 

place  in  a  perfectly  uniform  manner.  A  number  of  apertures  in 
the  cover  of  the  generator  serve  also  here  for  the  regulation  of 
the  current  of  air. 

A  thermometer  is  an  indispensable  adjunct  to  a  generator,  and 
should  be  so  placed  that  the  temperature  prevailing  in  the  appa- 
ratus, and  especially  in  the  centre,  can  be  readily  read  off.  This 
is  best  effected  by  introducing  at  about  half  the  height  of  the 
apparatus,  through  an  obliquely  bored  hole  in  one  of  the  staves, 
a  glass  tube  closed  at  the  lower  end  and  reaching  to  the  centre  of 
the  filling.  This  tube  serves  for  the  reception  of  a  thermometer 
fastened  to  the  lower  end  of  a  stick  of  wood.  The  latter  pro- 
jects from  the  glass  tube,  so  that  the  thermometer  can  be  quickly 
drawn  out  and  the  temperature  read  off. 

Fitting  of  the  Generators. 

For  filling  the  space  between  the  upper  disk  and  lower  lath 
bottom,  material  offering  a  large  surface  for  the  distribution  of 
the  alcoholic  liquid  is  used.  Pieces  of  charcoal  and  of  pumice 
stone,  washed  in  hydrochloric  acid  and  well  rinsed  in  water  to 
remove  empyreumatic  substances,  which  would  render  induction 
of  acetous  fermentation  impossible,  have  been  used  for  the  pur- 
pose, as  well  as  old  corks  or  waste  of  cork.  Pumice  stone 
especially  has  the  advantage  of  being  easily  cleansed  by  water 
and  by  fire  when  the  liquors,  such  as  those  from  fruits,  contain  a 
great  deal  of  mucilaginous  and  albuminous  substances,  which 
will  rapidly  accumulate  and  prevent  the  proper  working  of 
shavings.  Grape-stalks,  which  actually  present  a  very  large 
surface,  were  formerly  much  used  for  filling  the  generators,  but, 
independently  of  the  fact  that  they  cannot  be  everywhere  obtained 
in  sufficient  quantities,  they  have  the  disadvantage  of  becoming 
in  a  short  time  so  strongly  compressed  as  to  prevent  the  free  pas- 
sage of  air. 

J3ut  beechwood  shavings  are  now  nearly  everywhere  employed 
for  filling  the  generators.  Indeed,  beechwood  presents  many  ad- 
vantages; it  can  be  had  easily  and  cheap;  it  curls  well  and 
stands  without  breaking  for  a  length  of  time.  White  woods  will 
curl  as  well,  but  they  will  hot  stand  so  well  as  beech ;  resinous 
5 


66  VINEGAR,   CIDER,   AND   FRUIT- WINES. 

woods  are  not  porous  enough,  and  besides  their  resin  is  objection- 
able, as  it  may  partly  dissolve  in  the  vinegar ;  oak  wood  does  not 
curl  as  well  and  contains  too  much  coloring  matter  and  tannin. 

The  beech  shavings  are  generally  made  in  special  factories. 
They  consist  of  wooden  bands  about  J  millimeter  (0.02  inch) 
thick,  4  centimeters  (1.57  inches)  wide,  and  40  to  50  centimeters 
(15.74  to  19.68  inches)  long.  They  are  rolled  into  close  spirals 
by  a  special  machine,  and  each  shaving,  according  to  the  above 
dimensions,  presents  a  surface  of  about  400  square  centimeters  (62 
square  inches).  Now,  as  a  generator  of  moderate  size  contains  many 
thousands  of  such  shavings,  it  will  be  readily  seen  that  the  sur- 
face over  which  the  alcoholic  fluid  is  distributed  is  an  extraordi- 
narily large  one. 

A  shaving  of  the  stated  dimensions  represents  in  a  rolled  state 
a  cylinder  with  a  volume  in  round  numbers  of  28  cubic  centi- 
meters (1.7  cubic  inches).  By  allowing  an  interspace  of  14 
cubic  centimeters  (.85  cubic  inch)  between  the  shavings,  28  +  14 
=  42  cubic  centimeters  (1.7  +  0.85=1.92  cubic  inches),  space  is 
required  for  each  shaving.  The  space  to  be  filled  with  shavings 
in  a  generator  1  meter  (3.28  feet)  in  diameter  and  2  meters 
(6.56  feet)  high  is  equal  to  1.57  cubic  meters  (55.44  cubic  feet), 
and  hence  58,000  shavings,  with  a  total  surface  of  2112  square 
meters  (22,733.56  square  feet),  are  required  for  the  purpose. 
Now  suppose  only  5  per  cent,  of  this  surface  is  continually  active 
in  the  formation  of  vinegar,  we  have  still  a  surface  of  over  100 
square  meters  (1076.43  square  feet)  at  our  disposal.  But  the  ac- 
tive surface  would  seem  to  be  actually  much  smaller  even  with 
the  most  favorable  working  of  the  generator,  as  otherwise  the 
average  quantity  of  alcohol  daily  converted  into  acetic  acid  in  a 
generator  would  be  much  larger  than  is  actually  the  case. 

Beechwood  shavings  contain  a  considerable  quantity  of  ex- 
tractive substances,  which  if  not  removed  would  for  a  long  time 
impart  a  disagreeable  tang  (woody  taste)  to  the  vinegar.  Hence 
it  is  recommended  to  lixiviate  the  shavings  in  water  repeatedly 
renewed,  in  order  to  get  rid  of  the  substances  soluble  in  cold 
water  and  remove  the  last  traces  by  treatment  with  steam. 

This  steaming  is  best  effected  in  a  large  tub  or  a  vat,  which  is 
later  on  to  be  used  as  a  generator.  The  shavings  are  thrown  in 


QUICK    PROCESS   OF    FABRICATION   OF   VINEGAR.  67 

loosely  and  covered  with  a  loaded  lid.  A  steam-pipe  is  intro- 
duced through  a  hole  near  the  lid  and  the  tap-hole  near  the 
bottom  is  opened.  The  steam-pipe  being  connected  with  a  boiler, 
in  which  prevails  a  tension  of  If  to  2  atmospheres,  the  steam- 
cock  is  at  first  opened  but  slightly,  to  prevent  the  steam  entering 
with  great  force,  from  throwing  off  the  lid,  or  even  bursting  the 
vessel.  In  the  commencement  of  the  operation  the  steam  con- 
denses on  the  shavings,  but  after  some  time  the  vessel  becomes 
very  hot,  and  a  dark-colored  fluid,  consisting  of  almost  boiling 
water  charged  with  extractive  substances  of  the  wood,  begins  to 
run  off.  After  continuous  steaming  for  about  20  to  60  minutes 
— according  to  the  size  of  the  vessel — the  fluid  running  off  be- 
comes clearer  until  finally  clear  water  is  discharged,  which  is  in- 
dicative of  the  removal  of  the  extractive  substances  soluble  in 
water. 

Although  not  absolutely  necessary  it  is  advisable  to  dry  the 
steamed  shavings.  When  air-dried  they  still  contain  about  20 
per  cent,  of  water,  which  in  the  subsequent  "  acidulation"  of  the 
generator  must  be  replaced  by  vinegar.  Hence  it  is  recommended 
to  dry  the  shavings  completely  by  exposing  them  for  some  time 
to  a  current  of  air  of  194°  to  212°  F. 

In  a  factory  provided  with  a  central  heating  apparatus*  in  the 
cellar,  this  drying  of  the  shavings  can  be  effected  without  diffi- 
culty, it  only  being  necessary  to  put  them  in  a  vessel  with  a  per- 
forated bottom  and  open  on  top,  and  place  the  vessel  over  an 
aperture  of  the  channel  through  which  the  hot  air  from  the  heat- 
ing apparatus  ascends,  closing  all  other  apertures. 

Entirely  dry  wood  absorbing  with  avidity  moisture  from  the 
atmosphere,  the  shavings  thus  dried  should  immediately  be 
brought  into  another  vessel  and,  while  still  hot,  moistened  with 
the  vinegar  intended  for  acidulation. 

Before  using  the  shavings  for  filling  the  generators  it  is  neces- 
sary to  allow  them  to  swell  by  placing  them  in  water  or  alcoholic 
liquid.  If  this  were  omitted  and  the  shavings  introduced  in  a 

*  The  arrangement  of  a  central  heating  apparatus  will  be  described  later 
on  in  speaking  of  the  arrangement  of  the  factory. 


68  VINEGAR,   CIDER,   AND   FRUIT- WINES. 

dry  state  they  would  rise  above  the  generators  as  soon  as  moist- 
ened, on  account  of  the  increase  in  volume  by  swelling. 

In  most  factories  it  is  customary  simply  to  pour  the  shavings 
into  the  generator,  but  for  a  uniform  distribution  of  the  alcoholic 
fluid  it  is  advisable  to  proceed  with  the  filling  in  a  certain  order. 
First  place  the  shavings  in  three  or  four  regular  layers  upon  the 
lath-bottom,  then  pour  them  in  loosely  to  a  height  of  8  to  12 
inches,  and  after  levelling  the  surface  as  much  as  possible  pour  in 
again,  and  continue  in  this  manner  until  the  generator  is  filled ; 
the  uppermost  portion  should  again  consist  of  three  or  four  regu- 
lar layers. 

All  the  generators  used  in  a  vinegar  factory  should  be  of  the 
same  size  and  charged  with  the  same  number  of  shavings,  which 
is  best  effected  by  filling  them  with  the  same  quantity  by  weight. 
The  total  surface  of  shavings  being  thus  nearly  the  same  in  all 
generators,  the  latter  will  work  uniformly,  i.  <?.,  with  an  equal 
temperature  and  draught  of  air ;  and  in  the  same  time  convert 
equally  large  quantities  of  alcohol  into  acetic  acid. 


CHAPTER   VII. 

ARRANGEMENT   OF   A    VINEGAR   FACTORY. 

THE  arrangement  of  the  manufacturing  rooms  formerly  custo- 
mary even  in  large  factories  is  by  no  means  a  suitable  one.  The 
generators  were  generally  simply  placed  in  a  room  adapted  for  the 
purpose  by  its  size,  while  the  high  temperature  required  was 
sought  to  be  maintained  by  heating.  By  considering,  however, 
that  every  considerable  variation  in  the  temperature  causes  also  a 
disturbance  in  the  formation  of  vinegar,  it  will  be  seen  that  the 
object  of  keeping  up  an  undisturbed  working  of  the  factory  can- 
not be  attained  by  such  primitive  means.  A  suitable  arrange- 
ment of  the  room  in  which  the  vinegar  is  to  be  manufactured  is, 
therefore,  absolutely  necessary. 

The  principal  requisites  to  be  observed  are :  the  maintenance 
of  a  uniform  temperature  in  the  room  and  a  suitable  arrangement 


ARRANGEMENT   OF   A   VINEGAR   FACTORY.  69 

for  ventilation.  Further,  simple  means  for  the  conveyance  of 
the  raw  materials  and  the  finished  product  must  be  provided  for 
and  means  devised  for  regaining  the  acetic  acid,  with  the  vapors  of 
which  the  air  in  the  manufacturing  room  is  constantly  saturated. 

For  the  maintenance  of  a  uniform  temperature  in  the  work- 
room, which  should  remain  almost  constant  even  in  the  coldest 
season  of  the  year  and  during  abrupt  changes  in  the  outer  tem- 
perature, the  walls  should  be  of  more  than  ordinary  thickness 
and  the  number  of  windows  and  doors  sufficient  only  for  the 
necessary  light  and  communication,  and  so  arranged  that  110  un- 
intentional ventilation  can  occur.  The  windows  and  doors 
should,  therefore,  be  double,  and  the  latter  so  placed  that  one  can 
be  closed  without  opening  the  other.  The  walls  and  ceilings  should 
be  plastered  and  preferably  papered  with  stout  packing  paper. 

Asphaltum,  being  impermeable  and  also  indifferent  to  the  ac- 
tion of  acetic  acid,  is  undoubtedly  the  best  material  for  the  floor 
of  the  workroom,  though  it  may  also  be  constructed  of  large 
slabs  of  sandstone  with  the  joints  filled  in  with  asphaltum. 
Cement  floors  can  only  be  recommended  provided  they  are  im- 
mediately after  their  construction  coated  with  water-glass  until 
they  cease  to  absorb  it.  In  constructing  the  floor  care  must  be 
had  to  give  it  such  an  inclination  that  the  entire  surface  can  be 
cleansed  by  a  simple  jet  of  water.  If  the  heating  channel  is 
conducted  lengthwise  through  the  workroom,  gutters  for  the 
rinsing  water  to  run  off  must  be  arranged  on  both  sides. 

The  height  of  the  room  depends  on  that  of  the  generators. 

Heating  of  the  Workroom. 

Heating  by  a  stove  placed  in  the  workroom  itself  can  only  bo 
recommended  for  very  small  factories ;  in  larger  ones  a  special 
heating  apparatus  should  always  be  provided.  Where  stoves 
are  used  it  is  recommended  to  arrange  them  so  that  the  fuel  can 
be  supplied  and  the  ashes  removed  from  the  outside,  i.  e.,  from  a 
room  adjoining  the  actual  workroom.  In  attending  to  the  stoves 
fine  particles  of  ashes  will  unavoidably  reach  the  air ;  from  the 
latter  they  may  get  into  the  generators,  and  being  soluble  in 
acetic  acid  may  injure  the  vinegar  ferment. 

For  large  factories  a  heating  apparatus  similar  to  the  one  shown 


70 


VINEGAR,    CIDER,   AND    FRUIT-WINES. 


in  Figs.  17  and  18  can  be  recommended.  The  iron  heating  cyl- 
inder, which  is  provided  with  the  feeding-door  H  and  the  air- 
regulating  door  A,  stands  in  a  vault  beneath  the  centre  of  the 
room  to  be  heated.  It  is  surrounded  on  all  sides  by  the  sheet- 
iron  jacket  J/,  reaching  from  the  floor  of  the  cellar  to  the  top  of 
the  vault.  In  the  vault  is  a  circular  aperture,  0,  for  the  reception 
of  the  channels  C  and  <7r  The  latter,  ascending  slightly,  run 


Figs.  17,18. 


P  P 


Ground-plan  and  Elevation  of  Heating  Apparatus. 

along  the  centre  of  the  room  to  be  heated.  Above  they  are  cov- 
ered by  cast-iron  plates,  P,  and  by  pushing  these  plates  apart  or 
substituting  a  lattice  plate  for  one  of  them  in  any  part  of  the 
channel,  warm  air  can  be  admitted  to  the  room.  If  the  room  is 
to  be  heated  without  renewing  the  air,  the  register  in  the  flue  L 
which  communicates  by  a  flat  iron  pipe  with  the  lower  part  of 


ARRANGEMENT   OF    A   VINEGAR   FACTORY. 


71 


*.  19. 


1L-55 


the  jacket,  is  opened.  The  furnace  being  heated  the  air  in  the 
room  is  sucked  in  the  direction  of  the  arrow  through  the  flue  L, 
and  passing  between  the  jacket  and  the  furnace,  ascends  strongly 
heated  through  0  and  penetrates  through  the  openings  in  the 
channel ;  air  is  again  sucked  through  L,  and  so  on. 

If,  however,  the  air  in  the  workroom  is  to  be  entirely  renewed, 
the  air-flue  L  is  closed  and  a  register  (not  shown  in  the  illustra- 
tion) in  the  lower  part  of  the  jacket  opened. 
In  this  case  the  air  in  the  cellar  is  sucked  in, 
heated  and  distributed  through  the  channels 
C  and  Cv  By  partially  opening  this  register 
and  that  in  L  a  portion  of  the  air  can  be  re- 
newed at  will. 

In  order  to  be  able  to  form  a  correct  idea 
of  the  state  of  the  temperature  prevailing  in 
the  room,  it  is  advisable  to  have  several  or- 
dinary thermometers  and  also  a  maximum 
and  minimum  thermometer.  If  the  latter 
showrs  no  greater  variation  than  from  4°  to 
5°,  the  process  of  heating  may  be  considered 
as  satisfactory. 

A  very  suitable  apparatus  for  controlling 
the  temperature  in  a  vinegar  factory  is  au 
electrical  thermometer,  which  is  so  arranged 
that  a  bell  rings  in  case  the  temperature  rises 
above  or  falls  below  a  certain  degree.  By 
placing  two  such  thermometers  in  the  room, 
the  bell  of  the  one  indicates  the  rise  of  the 
temperature  above  the  limit,  and  that  of  the 
other  that  it  has  fallen  below  it. 

Fig.  19  illustrates  the  principle  of  a  maxi- 
mum electrical  thermometer,  i.  e.>  one  which 
rings  a  bell  when  the  temperature  of  the  room 
exceeds  a  certain  limit.  Into  the  bulb  of  an 

Maximum    Electrical 

ordinary  mercury  thermometer  is  melted  a          Thermometer, 
platinum  wire ;  another  platinum  wire  is  in- 
serted in  the  tube  up  to  the  mark  indicating  the  temperature  not 
to  be  exceeded,  for  instance,  35°  C.     The  ends  of  the  platinum 


-35 


=-30 


=-20 


=-15 


72  VINEGAR,   CIDER,    AND    FRUIT- WINES. 

wires  projecting  from  the  thermometer  are  connected  by  insulated 
copper  wires  with  a  galvanic  battery  consisting  of  several  ele- 
ments, an  ordinary  door-bell  being  inserted  in  one  part  of  the 
conductor.  If,  now,  in  consequence  of  a  continued  increase  in 
the  temperature,  the  mercury  rises  to  the  point  of  the  platinum 
wire  at  the  figure  35°,  the  circuit  of  the  battery  is  closed  at  the 
same  time  by  the  column  of  mercury,  and  the  bell  rings  and 
keeps  ringing  until  the  circuit  is  again  opened  by  the  mercury 
falling  below  35°. 

The  minimum  electrical  thermometer,  used  for  indicating  the 
falling  of  the  temperature  below  a  certain  degree,  is  so  arranged 
that  one  platinum  wire  is  melted  into  the  bulb  of  the  ther- 
mometer and  the  other  in  the  tube  at  the  point  below  which  the 
temperature  is  not  to  fall.  As  long  as  the  mercury  remains  above 
this  point  a  battery,  which  changes  a  piece  of  iron  to  an  electro- 
magnet, whose  anchor  opens  a  second  battery  which  is  connected 
with  an  electric  bell,  remains  closed.  .If  the  temperature  falls 
below  the  minimum,  the  circuit  of  the  first  battery  is  opened,  and 
the  anchor  of  the  electro-magnet  falling  down  eifects  the  closing 
of  the  second  battery  and  sets  the  bell  ringing. 

By  placing  such  thermometers  not  only  in  the  working  room 
but  also  in  every  generator,  the  control  of  the  entire  process 
would  be  immensely  facilitated,  but  at  the  present  time  these 
useful  and  at  the  same  time  inexpensive  instruments  are  but  little 
used  in  vinegar  factories. 

In  factories  arranged  according  to  the  automatic  system,  the 
alcoholic  liquid  is  contained  in  vessels  placed  at  such  a  level  that 
their  contents  can  run  directly  into  the  generators.  The  alcoholic 
liquid  having  to  be  correspondingly  heated,  adequate  provision 
must  be  made  for  heating  the  space  in  which  the  reservoirs  are 
placed.  In  order  not  to  increase  the  height  of  the  entire  room,  it 
is  recommended  to  place  these  vessels  in  the  centre  and  give  only 
to  this  portion  the  required  height.  This  has  the  further  advan- 
tage that  the  pumping  up  of  the  alcoholic  liquid  can  be  effected 
by  the  use  of  a  pump  with  a  short  rising-pipe,  and  the  liquid  can 
be  readily  conducted  from  the  reservoirs  to  the  separate  generators 
by  means  of  pipes. 


ARTIFICIAL   VENTILATION   OF   VINEGAR  GENERATORS.      73 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

ARTIFICIAL    VENTILATION    OF   THE   VINEGAR   GENERATORS. 

THE  first  experiments  in  conveying  direct  air  to  every  gene- 
rator were  made  in  England ;  but  though  this  step  towards 
improvement  in  the  fabrication  of  vinegar  must  be  considered 
an  important  advance,  the  English  process  failed  of  being  ac- 
cepted in  practice  on  account  of  the  inadequacy  of  the  apparatus 
used. 

In  the  English  factories  by  a  special  apparatus  a  current  of  air 
was  sucked  from  above  to  below  through  every  generator.  As 
shown  in  Fig.  20,  the  tall  generators  are  open  on  top  and 
divided  by  false  bottoms,  upon  which  the  shavings,  etc.,  rest,  into 
several  partitions ;  above  each  false  bottom  holes  are  bored  in  the 
circumference  of  the  generators.  In  the  bottom  of  the  generator 
is  inserted  a  pipe  which  is  connected  with  an  arrangement  for 
sucking  in  the  air,  a  blower  or  air-pump  being  used  for  the 
purpose. 

As  will  be  seen  from  the  illustration,  the  suction  of  air  through 
all  parts  of  the  generator  cannot  be  uniformly  effected  by  the  use 
of  this  apparatus,  the  current  of  air  being  much  more  checked 
in  the  upper  portions,  by  the  false  bottoms  and  holes  in  the 
circumference,  than  in  the  lower.  Hence  the  effect  of  the  air- 
pump  or  blower  will  chiefly  assert  itself  in  the  lowest  partition. 
This  evil  might  be  remedied  by  leaving  out  the  false  bottoms 
and  placing  no  air-holes  in  the  circumference  of  the  generator 
entirely  open  at  the  top ;  by  these  means  the  air  would  be  forced 
to  pass  in  a  uniform  current  through  the  entire  layer  of  the  filling 
material. 

That  the  passage  of  the  current  of  air  from  above  to  below  is 
entirely  incorrect,  because  contrary  to  all  theoretical  requirements, 
can  be  readily  explained  :  In  a  generator  in  full  activity,  oxida- 
tion of  alcohol  must  already  take  place  in  the  uppermost  portion, 


74 


VINEGAR,   CIDER,   AND   FRUIT-WINES. 


air. 


Fig.  20. 


and  hence  a  certain  quantity  of  oxygen  is  withdrawn  from  the 
This  process  being  also  continued  in  the  lower  parts  of  the 
generator,  a  current  of  air  already 
deprived  of  a  portion  of  its  oxygen, 
and  hence  less  suitable  for  the  fur- 
ther formation  of  acetic  acid,  would 
be  sucked  in  the  same  direction 
which  the  drops  of  alcohol  take. 

The  principal  reason  advanced 
for  the  use  of  a  current  of  air  from 
above  to  below  is  that  by  these 
means  a  uniform  temperature  is 
maintained  in  all  parts  of  the  gen- 
erators, while  it  rises  considerably 
in  the  upper  part  of  those  in  which 
the  air  passes  from  below  to  above. 
This  rise  of  temperature  is,  how- 
ever, agreeable  to  nature.  The  air 
entering  from  below  oxidizes  the 
alcohol  to  acetic  acid,  becoming 
thereby  poorer  in  oxygen  and  again 
heated.  By  the  higher  temperature 
it  acquires,  it  is,  however,  capable 
of  a  more  vigorous  chemical  activity, 
so  that  it  will  induce  the  process  of 
the  formation  of  vinegar,  even  in 
the  uppermost  portions  of  the  gen- 
erator. Besides,  the  warmer  cur- 
rent of  air  moving  upwards  has  the 
further  advantage  of  yielding  heat 

to  the  drops  of  alcoholic  fluid  trickling  down.  With  the  use  oi 
generators  of  moderate  height,  and  with  a  suitable  regulation  ot 
the  draught  of  air,  the  maximum  temperature  will  not  be  ex- 
ceeded, even  in  the  uppermost  portions  of  the  generator. 

If  no  rise  of  temperature  is  observed  in  the  lower  portions  of 
a  generator  in  which  the  air  passes  from  above  to  below,  it  only 
proves  that  the  air  has  lost  too  much  oxygen  to  further  effect  a 
vigorous  oxidation  of  the  alcohol.  It  will  be  readily  understood 


Generator  with  Ventilation  from 
above  to  below. 


ARTIFICIAL   VENTILATION   OF   VINEGAR   GENERATORS.      75 

that  under  these  conditions  a  diminution  in  the  loss  of  substance 
can,  to  a  certain  degree,  be  effected,  but  it  is  doubtful  whether 
the  generators  are  utilized  in  the  manner  they  should  be ;  besides, 
the  diminution  in  loss  of  substance  cannot  be  very  considerable. 
Since  a  high  temperature  also  prevails  in  ventilated  generators, 
the  current  of  air  passing  downward  will  be  loaded  with  as  much 
vapor  of  alcohol  or  of  acetic  acid  as  it  can  absorb  at  this  tempera- 
ture, and,  hence,  it  would  seem  no  diminution  in  loss  by  evapora- 
tion could  be  effected.  To  render  this  possible,  the  current  of 
air  sucked  from  the  generator  would  have  to  be  sufficiently  cooled 
off  by  a  suitable  arrangement  for  the  greater  portion  of  .the 
vapors  carried  away  by  the  current  of  air  to  condense  to  a  fluid. 

Schulze's  Ventilating  Apparatus. 

The  ventilation  of  the  vinegar  generators,  according  to  the 
above-described  method,  requires  the  presence  of  an  uninterrupt- 
edly acting  power  for  working  the  air-pump,  blower,  etc.  As  is 
well  known,  a  current  of  air  can,  however,  be  also  produced  by 
heating  the  air  passing  through  an  ascending  pipe,  by  which  it 
becomes  specifically  lighter  and  ascends,  while  denser  air  enters 
from  below,  etc.  Schulze,  as  will  be  seen  from  Fig.  21,  has 
applied  this  method  to  the  ventilation  of  vinegar  generators. 

Schulze's  generator  differs  somewhat  from  the  ordinary  con- 
struction, and  is  arranged  as  follows :  The  vat  has  a  height  of 
about  8  feet,  and  a  diameter  of  2  feet  6  inches.  In  the  upper  part 
it  is  terminated  by  a  false  bottom,  fitting  air-tight,  and  is  further 
provided  with  a  cover,  in  the  centre  of  which  is  an  aperture  about 
2J  inches  in  diameter,  which  serves  for  the  entrance  of  air,  while 
another  aperture  on  the  side  serves  for  pouring  in  the  alcoholic 
liquid.  In  the  false  bottom  are  inserted  four  glass-tubes,  open 
at  both  ends  and  about  f  inch  in  diameter,  which  afford  a  passage 
to  the  air.  The  generator  is  filled  with  pieces  of  washed  and 
assorted  charcoal,  so  that  pieces  of  the  size  of  a  nut  are  placed 
upon  the  lath-bottom,  and  upon  this  are  poured  smaller  pieces, 
gradually  decreasing  in  size  until  those  on  the  top  are  only  that 
of  a  pea.  In  the  centre  of  the  bottom  is  inserted  a  wooden  tube, 
open  at  both  ends  and  provided -on  top  with  a  hood  to  prevent 


76 


VINEGAR,   CIDER,    AND    FRUIT- WINES. 


the  trickling  in  of  vinegar  (see  Fig.  10).  By  a  suitable  inter- 
mediate piece,  this  tube  is  connected  with  the  draught-pipe  (see 
Fig.  21),  in  which  the  ascension  of  the  air  by  heating  is  effected. 

Fig.  21. 


^^5^^^^^^^^^^^^^^§^5^5s> 

1 '"1       i       i       I       1 

Schulze's  Ventilating  Apparatus. 

The  draught-pipes  are  of  cast  iron,  and  are  about  J-inch  thick 
and  about  4^  feet  long,  with  a  clear  diameter  of  2  inches.  They 
are  placed,  strongly  inclined,  over  the  flues  of  a  heating  appara- 
tus and  covered  above  by  a  double  course  of  stone.  The  air  in 
the  iron  draught-pipes,  being  heated  by  the  escaping  gases  of 
combustion,  ascends  and  effects  the  passage  of  a  current  of  air 
from  above  to  below  in  the  generators.  For  keeping  up  a  con- 
stant ventilation  it  is  claimed  to  be  sufficient  to  heat  the  furnace 
only  once  a  day.  With  this  construction  it  is  necessary  to  have 
as  many  draught-pipes  as  there  are  generators;  the  same  effect 
might,  however,  also  be  attained  by  connecting  the  pipes  leading 
from  several  generators  with  a  draught-pipe  of  a  somewhat  greater 
diameter  and  length. 

It  is  not  difficult  to  prove  that  a  uniform  ventilation  of  the 
generators  cannot  be  obtained  by  the  use  of  this  construction. 
As  long  as  the  draught-pipes  are  strongly  heated,  a  very  rapid 
current  of  air  will  pass  through  them  and  the  generators  con- 


ARTIFICIAL   VENTILATION   OF   VINEGAR   GENERATORS.      77 

nected  with  them,  which  will,  however,  decrease  in  the  same 
degree  as  the  pipes  cool  off.  Hence,  in  the  first  case,  a  too  rapid 
current  of  air  accompanied  by  a  correspondingly  strong  evapora- 
tion of  alcohol  would  pass  through  the  generators,  and  in  the 
latter,  ventilation  would  be  so  sluggish  that  the  process  of  the 
formation  of  vinegar  would  not  proceed  in  a  normal  manner. 

Generators  with  constant  Ventilation  and  Condensation. 

The  object  to  be  attained  by  the  use  of  special  ventilating  con- 
trivances is  a  double  one :  to  conduct  a  constant  current  of  air 
through  the  generators,  and,  further,  not  to  allow  the  temperature 
to  rise  above  a  certain  limit,  so  as  to  decrease  by  these  means  the 
loss  by  evaporation  of  alcohol  and  acetic  acid.  This  object  can, 
however,  be  attained  only  by  the  use  of  an  apparatus  which 
allows  of  the  most  accurate  regulation  of  the  current  of  air  pass- 
ing through  the  generator,  and  is  connected  with  a  contrivance 
by  which  the  vapors  of  alcohol  and  acetic  acid  carried  along  by 
the  current  of  air  can  be  condensed  as  much  as  possible.  The 
following  apparatus  is  well  adapted  for  the  purpose ;  its  principal 
parts  consist  of  the  generator,  the  apparatus  for  condensing  the 
vapors,  and  the  ventilator. 

The  construction  of  the  lower  part  of  the  generator,  Fig.  22, 
is  the  same  as  of  those  previously  described  ;  the  cover  fits  tightly 
upon  the  upper  edge  of  the  vat,  the  joint  being  made  air-tight  by 
strips  of  paper  pasted  over  it.  In  the  centre  of  the  cover  is  a 
square  aperture,  from  which  rises  a  quadrangular  pyramid,  P, 
constructed  of  boards,  upon  which  sits  a  low  prism,  A.  The 
sparger  D  has  its  centre  of  motion  upon  the  lath  L,  placed  in 
the  uppermost  portion  of  the  generator,  and  is  guided  above  in 
the  short  lath  Lv  which  carries  the  sharp-edged  ring  described 
on  p.  64.  E  is  the  glass  tube  through  which  the  alcoholic  liquid 
flows  into  the  funnel  of  the  sparger.  On  the  point  where  the 
pyramid  passes  into  the  prism  A,  is  a  bottom  provided  with  a 
circular  aperture,  0,  2J  to  3  inches  in  diameter.  Upon  the  top 
of  the  prism  A  is  placed  a  nut,  in  which  runs  a  wooden  screw, 
provided  on  the  lower  end  with  a  wooden  disk,  S,  of  a  somewhat 
greater  diameter  than  the  aperture  0.  By  raising  or  lowering 


78  VINEGAR,   CIDER,    AND   FRUIT-WINES. 

this  screw,  the  aperture  0  can  be  closed  more  or  less  or  entirely, 
and  thus  the  strength  of  the  current  of  air  regulated  at  will  in 
every  generator.  The  prisms  A  of  all  the  generators  are  con- 
nected with  each  other  by  the  conduit  R,  constructed  of  boards. 


Fig.  22. 


Fig.  23. 


Ventilating  Apparatus  according  to  Bersch. 

This  conduit  R  is  connected — best  in  the  centre  between  an 
equally  large  number  of  generators — with  the  condensing  appa- 
ratus, the  chief  feature  of  which  is  a  worm  similar  to  that  used  in 
a  still.  Fig.  24  shows  the  apparatus  in  cross-section. 

In  a  sheet-iron  vessel  of  the  same  height  as  the  generator  is 
placed  another  vessel,  so  that  there  is  a  distance  of  about  5f 
inches  between  the  walls.  From  a  reservoir  situated  at  a  higher 
level  cold  water  runs  into  the  apparatus  through  the  pipe  K,  and 
off  through  the  short  pipe  W.  In  the  space  between  the  walls  of 
the  two  vessels  lies  a  tin  coil  with  very  thin  walls  and  a  diameter 
of  at  least  2J  inches.  On  top  this  tin  coil  is  connected  with  the 
wooden  tube  R  (Fig.  23)  and  below  with  the  iron  pipe  Rr  which 
leads  to  the  ventilating  apparatus.  C  is  a  glass  tube  about  16 
inches  long  and  J  to  f  inch  in  diameter,  which  reaches  nearly  to 
the  bottom  of  the  flask  half  filled  with  water. 

The  ventilating  apparatus  consists  of  an  ordinary  Meidinger 
self-regulating  stove,  but  its  jacket  is  closed  below  so  that  air  can 
only  pass  in  between  the  heating  cylinder  and  the  jacket  through 
the  pipe  Rv  coming  from  the  condensing  apparatus. 


ARTIFICIAL   VENTILATION    OF    VINEGAR   GENERATORS.       79 

The  apparatus  works  as  follows :  According  as  combustion 
in  the  stove  proceeds  slowly  or  quickly  by  the  corresponding 
position  of  the  regulating  register,  the  air  between  the  heating 
cylinder  and  the  jacket  becomes  less  or  more  heated  and  ascends 

Fig.  24. 


W 


Condensing  Apparatus — Cross  Section. 

with  corresponding  velocity.  But  as  the  further  entrance  of  air 
can  take  place  only  through  the  pipe  Rly  the  tin  coil,  and  the 
wooden  tube  R,  a  uniform  current  of  air  from  below  to  above 
must  pass  through  all  the  generators.  To  regulate  the  strength  of 
the  current  for  each  generator,  it  is  only  necessary  to  close  the  aper- 
ture 0  (Fig.  22)  more  or  less  by  raising  or  lowering  the  screw. 

The  current  of  air  passing  from  the  wooden  tube  R  into 
the  tin  coil  carries  with  it  the  total  amount  of  evaporated  alcohol 
or  acetic  acid.  By  passing  through  the  tin  coil,  which  is  cooled 
by  the  water,  the  air  itself  becomes  cooled  off,  and  the  greater 


80  VINEGAR,    CIDER,    AND    FRUIT-WINES. 

portion  of  the  vapors  held  by  it  condense  to  liquid  and  run  off 
through  the  tube  C  into  the  bottle.  The  fluid  thus  obtained  con- 
sists chiefly  of  alcohol,  water,  and  acetic  acid,  and  is  again  used 
for  the  preparation  of  alcoholic  liquid.  On  account  of  the  pecu- 
liar form  of  the  cooling  vessel  but  little  water  is  required  for 
feeding  it.  As  the  quantity  of  vapor  separated  from  the  air 
will,  however,  be  the  greater  the  more  energetically  the  tin  coil  is 
cooled  off,  it  is  recommended  to  reduce  the  temperature  of  the 
water  to  nearly  32°  F.  by  throwing  in  pieces  of  ice. 

It  has  been  proposed  to  regain  the  vapors  by  conducting  the 
air  containing  them  into  a  large  vessel  in  which  water  in  the 
form  of  a  fine  spray  trickles  down  or  is  injected.  It  is,  of  course, 
possible  in  this  manner  to  condense  the  greater  portion  of  vapors 
of  a  higher  temperature  and  tension,  but  with  vapors  of  at  the 
utmost  95°  F.  little  success  would  be  attained.  The  greater 
portion  of  the  vapors  remaining  uncondensed  a  very  large  quan- 
tity of  fluid  containing  but  little  alcohol  would  be  obtained  in 
the  course  of  a  day  and  this  fluid  could  at  the  best  be  used  only 
instead  of  water  for  the  preparation  of  alcoholic  liquid.  The 
value  of  the  material  thus  regained  would  not  cover  the  working 
expenses  of  the  apparatus.  By  working,  however,  with  the  con- 
densing apparatus  described  above,  the  condensed  alcohol  does 
not  even  contain  the  total  quantity  of  water  evaporated  with  it, 
and  it  need  only  be  compounded  with  the  corresponding  quantity 
of  water  and  vinegar  again  to  yield  alcoholic  liquid. 


CHAPTER   IX. 

AUTOMATIC  VINEGAR  APPARATUS. 

THE  principal  work  to  be  performed  in  a  vinegar  factory  con- 
sists in  pouring  at  stated  intervals  the  alcoholic  fluid  into  the 
generators.  In  a  large  factory  several  workmen  are  constantly 
engaged  in  this  work  and  losses  by  spilling  are  unavoidable. 
Further  it  is  almost  next  to  impossible  always  to  pour  in  the 
same  quantity  at  exactly  the  same  intervals,  and  sometimes  a 


AUTOMATIC   VINEGAR   APPARATUS.  81 

generator  may  even  be  entirely  overlooked  and  thus  remain  inac- 
tive until  the  next  supply  of  alcoholic  liquid  is  poured  in. 

The  greatest  disadvantage  is,  however,  the  interruption  for 
several  hours  daily  of  the  formation  of  vinegar  in  all  the  genera- 
tors, so  that,  for  instance,  in  a  factory  working  16  hours  a  day, 
one-third  of  the  time  is  lost.  Independently  of  the  small  return 
on  the  capital  invested,  these  interruptions  are  accompanied  by 
many  other  conditions  injurious  to  the  regular  running  of  the 
factory. 

The  greatest  of  these  evils  is  that  with  the  cessation  of  the  sup- 
ply of  alcoholic  fluid  the  augmentation  of  the  vinegar  ferment 
diminishes  and  finally  ceases  altogether.  Further,  the  develop- 
ment of  heat  in  the  interior  of  the  apparatus  at  the  same  time 
ceases  and  the  temperature  is  reduced  several  degrees,  this  phenom- 
enon appearing  even  in  factories  provided  with  the  best  heating 
apparatus  and  keeping  up  a  constant  temperature  in  the  workroom 
during  the  night. 

In  the  morning  when  work  is  resumed,  it  is  in  most  cases 
necessary  to  vigorously  air  the  apparatus  by  opening  all  the  draught 
holes  in  order  to  gradually  restore  the  temperature  to  the  required 
degree,  and  it  requires  some  time  before  the  apparatus  again 
works  in  a  normal  manner. 

The  vinegar  ferment,  however,  is  very  sensitive  to  changes  of 
temperature  as  Avell  as  to  the  concentration  of  the  nourishing 
substance  surrounding  it,  and  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  its  aug- 
mentation is  prejudiced  by  the  continuous  variations  of  tempera- 
ture to  which  it  is  exposed  during  the  interruptions  of  several 
hours  a  day.  That  such  is  actually  the  case  is  shown  by  the  fact 
that  the  quantity  of  vinegar  ferment  formed  in  the  generators  is 
small  as  compared  with  that  which  under  conditions  favorable  to 
the  ferment  forms  in  a  short  time  upon  alcoholic  liquids. 

Besides  the  debilitation  of  the  vinegar  ferment  and  the  conse- 
quent disturbance  in  the  regular  working  of  the  factory,  the 
repeated  reduction  of  the  temperature  in  the  generators  has  the 
further  disadvantage  that  besides  the  vinegar  ferment  other  fer- 
ments for  whose  development  a  low  temperature  is  more  favorable 
may  be  formed,  and  these  ferments  may  increase  to  such  an  extent 
as  to  entirely  suppress  the  vinegar  ferment.  There  can  scarcely 
6 


80  VINEGAR,    CIDER,    AND    FRUIT- WINES. 

portion  of  the  vapors  held  by  it  condense  to  liquid  and  run  off 
through  the  tube  C  into  the  bottle.  The  fluid  thus  obtained  con- 
sists chiefly  of  alcohol,  water,  and  acetic  acid,  and  is  again  used 
for  the  preparation  of  alcoholic  liquid.  On  account  of  the  pecu- 
liar form  of  the  cooling  vessel  but  little  water  is  required  for 
feeding  it.  As  the  quantity  of  vapor  separated  from  the  air 
will,  however,  be  the  greater  the  more  energetically  the  tin  coil  is 
cooled  off,  it  is  recommended  to  reduce  the  temperature  of  the 
water  to  nearly  32°  F.  by  throwing  in  pieces  of  ice. 

It  has  been  proposed  to  regain  the  vapors  by  conducting  the 
air  containing  them  into  a  large  vessel  in  Avhich  water  in  the 
form  of  a  fine  spray  trickles  down  or  is  injected.  It  is,  of  course, 
possible  in  this  manner  to  condense  the  greater  portion  of  vapors 
of  a  higher  temperature  and  tension,  but  with  vapors  of  at  the 
utmost  95°  F.  little  success  would  be  attained.  The  greater 
portion  of  the  vapors  remaining  uncondensed  a  very  large  quan- 
tity of  fluid  containing  but  little  alcohol  would  be  obtained  in 
the  course  of  a  day  and  this  fluid  could  at  the  best  be  used  only 
instead  of  water  for  the  preparation  of  alcoholic  liquid.  The 
value  of  the  material  thus  regained  would  not  cover  the  working 
expenses  of  the  apparatus.  By  working,  however,  with  the  con- 
densing apparatus  described  above,  the  condensed  alcohol  does 
not  even  contain  the  total  quantity  of  water  evaporated  with  it, 
and  it  need  only  be  compounded  with  the  corresponding  quantity 
of  water  and  vinegar  again  to  yield  alcoholic  liquid. 


CHAPTER  IX. 

AUTOMATIC  VINEGAR  APPARATUS. 

THE  principal  work  to  be  performed  in  a  vinegar  factory  con- 
sists in  pouring  at  stated  intervals  the  alcoholic  fluid  into  the 
generators.  In  a  large  factory  several  workmen  are  constantly 
engaged  in  this  work  and  losses  by  spilling  are  unavoidable. 
Further  it  is  almost  next  to  impossible  always  to  pour  in  the 
same  quantity  at  exactly  the  same  intervals,  and  sometimes  a 


AUTOMATIC   VINEGAR   APPARATUS.  81 

generator  may  even  be  entirely  overlooked  and  thus  remain  inac- 
tive until  the  next  supply  of  alcoholic  liquid  is  poured  in. 

The  greatest  disadvantage  is,  however,  the  interruption  for 
several  hours  daily  of  the  formation  of  vinegar  in  all  the  genera- 
tors, so  that,  for  instance,  in  a  factory  working  16-  hours  a  day, 
one-third  of  the  time  is  lost.  Independently  of  the  small  return 
on  the  capital  invested,  these  interruptions  are  accompanied  by 
many  other  conditions  injurious  to  the  regular  running  of  the 
factory. 

The  greatest  of  these  evils  is  that  with  the  cessation  of  the  sup- 
ply of  alcoholic  fluid  the  augmentation  of  the  vinegar  ferment 
diminishes  and  finally  ceases  altogether.  Further,  the  develop- 
ment of  heat  in  the  interior  of  the  apparatus  at  the  same  time 
ceases  and  the  temperature  is  reduced  several  degrees,  this  phenom- 
enon appearing  even  in  factories  provided  with  the  best  heating 
apparatus  and  keeping  up  a  constant  temperature  in  the  workroom 
during  the  night. 

In  the  morning  when  work  is  resumed,  it  is  in  most  cases 
necessary  to  vigorously  air  the  apparatus  by  opening  all  the  draught 
holes  in  order  to  gradually  restore  the  temperature  to  the  required 
degree,  and  it  requires  some  time  before  the  apparatus  again 
works  in  a  normal  manner. 

The  vinegar  ferment,  however,  is  very  sensitive  to  changes  of 
temperature  as  well  as  to  the  concentration  of  the  nourishing 
substance  surrounding  it,  and  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  its  aug- 
mentation is  prejudiced  by  the  continuous  variations  of  tempera- 
ture to  which  it  is  exposed  during  the  interruptions  of  several 
hours  a  day.  That  such  is  actually  the  case  is  shown  by  the  fact 
that  the  quantity  of  vinegar  ferment  formed  in  the  generators  is 
small  as  compared  with  that  which  under  conditions  favorable  to 
the  ferment  forms  in  a  short  time  upon  alcoholic  liquids. 

Besides  the  debilitation  of  the  vinegar  ferment  and  the  conse- 
quent disturbance  in  the  regular  working  of  the  factory,  the 
repeated  reduction  of  the  temperature  in  the  generators  has  the 
further  disadvantage  that  besides  the  vinegar  ferment  other  fer- 
ments for  whose  development  a  low  temperature  is  more  favorable 
may  be  formed,  and  these  ferments  may  increase  to  such  an  extent 
as  to  entirely  suppress  the  vinegar  ferment.  There  can  scarcely 


&4  VINEGAR,   CIDER,    AND   FRUIT-WINES. 

liquid  flows  into  each  generator,  rims  above  the  uppermost  row. 
Another  conduit,  Ll  common  to  all  the  generators,  serves  for  the 
reception  of  the  fluid  (finished  vinegar)  running  off  from  the 
lowest  row,  and  conducts  it  to  the  collecting  vessel,  S.  The 
arrows  indicate  the  course  the  alcoholic  liquid  has  to  traverse. 

From  all  appearances  the  arrangement  of  a  factory  according 
to  the  above-described  system  would  be  most  advisable,  there 
being  actually  nothing  to  do  but  to  raise  the  alcoholic  liquid 
once  and  to  remove  the  finished  vinegar  from  the  collecting 
vessel.  In  practice,  however,  this  so-called  terrace  system  pre- 
sents many  difficulties  not  easily  overcome,  the  greatest  un- 
doubtedly being  the  solution  of  the  heating  problem.  Experience 
shows  that  the  temperature  in  a  generator  must  be  the  higher  the 
more  acetic  acid  the  alcoholic  liquid  contains.  According  to  this, 
the  highest  temperature  should  prevail  in  the  lowest  series  of 
generators  (///,  Fig.  25)  and  the  lowest  in  the  uppermost  (J). 

But  in  practice  just  the  reverse  is  the  case  even  with  the  use 
of  the  best  heating  apparatus :  the  highest  temperature  prevails 
in  /  and  the  lowest  in  JJJ,  as,  according  to  natural  law,  the 
warm  air  being  specifically  lighter  than  the  cold  constantly  strives 
to  ascend. 

To  overcome  this  evil  nothing  can  be  done  but  to  place  the 
series  J,  //,  and  III  of  the  generators  in  as  many  different  stories 
entirely  separated  from  each  other,  or,  in  case  there  is  a  central 
heating  apparatus  in  the  cellar,  to  correctly  distribute  the  warm 
air  in  the  separate  stories  by  suitably  arranged  registers.  The 
solution  of  this  problem  offers  no  insuperable  difficulties,  but  re- 
quires the  arrangement  of  the  entire  factory  to  be  carefully 
planned  in  accordance  with  the  laws  of  physics. 

An  unavoidable  evil  of  the  terrace  system  is  the  costliness  of 
the  factory  building,  and,  finally,  that  a  disturbance  occurring  in 
one  of  the  generators  must  simultaneously  affect  two  others  of  the 
vertical  series,  which  must  necessarily  remain  idle  until  the  dis- 
turbance is  removed.  Considering  all  the  disadvantages  con- 
nected with  the  terrace  system,  though  it  is  seemingly  so  suita- 
ble, it  is  but  little  adapted  to  practice,  it  being  much  preferable 
to  place  all  the  generators  on  the  same  level  and  to  divide  them 


AUTOMATIC   VINEGAR   APPARATUS.  85 

into  three  groups,  each  of  which  is  provided  with  a  reservoir  for 
the  alcoholic  liquid  and  a  collecting  vessel. 

The  mode  of  working  according  to  this  system  is  as  follows  : 
The  alcoholic  liquid  is  pumped  into  a  reservoir,  from  which  it 
passes  through  group  I  of  generators  and  collects  in  a  vessel. 
From  the  latter  it  is  pumped  into  a  second  reservoir  placed  on 
the  same  level  with  the  first,  and  runs  through  group  II  of  gene- 
rators into  another  collecting  vessel ;  from  there  it  is  again  pumped 
into  a  third  reservoir,  and  after  passing  through  group  III  of 
generators  finally  collects  as  finished  vinegar  in  a  third  collecting 
vessel. 

Though  the  arrangement  of  all  the  generators  on  the  same 
level  renders  it  necessary  to  raise  the  alcoholic  liquid  three  times, 
it  would  seem  more  suitable  than  the  terrace  system  for  the  fol- 
lowing reasons  :  1.  By  a  suitable  regulation  of  the  heating  ap- 
paratus the  required  temperature  can  be  readily  maintained  in  the 
separate  groups  of  generators.  2.  In  case  of  a  disturbance  in 
one  of  the  groups,  the  respective  generator  can  be  left  out  with- 
out causing  an  interruption  in  the  work  of  the  other  groups.  3. 
The  power  required  to  pump  the  alcoholic  liquid  three  times  into 
the  reservoirs  V v  V  2,  and  F"3  is  not  much  greater  than  that 
which  has  to  be  used  to  raise  it  to  the  height  of  the  reservoir  in 
factories  arranged  according  to  the  terrace  system.  4.  Notwith- 
standing the  greater  area  required,  the  erection  of  a  one-story 
factory  is  less  expensive  than  that  of  a  three-story  building  with 
complicated  heating  apparatus  and  very  strong,  solid  floors, 
which  are  required  on  account  of  the  great  weight  of  the  gene- 
rators. 

The  uniform  distribution  of  the  alcoholic  liquid  into  each 
generator  is  very  simple  in  factories  arranged  according  to  the 
terrace  system,  and  can  be  effected  in  the  following  manner : — 

The  false  bottoms  are  fitted  water-tight  in  the  generators  ;  they 
are  provided  either  with  narrow  holes  alone,  or  with  apertures 
loosely  filled  with  cotton-wick,  pack-thread,  etc.  The  pipes 
ascending  from  the  vinegar  forming  space,  which  is  filled  with 
shavings,  are  inserted  water-tight  in  the  false  bottoms.  On  the 
reservoir  containing  the  alcoholic  liquid  is  a  spigot  which  can  be 
accurately  adjusted,  and  is  securely  connected  with  the  conduit 


86  VINEGAR,    CIDER,   AND    FRUIT- WINES. 

leading  to  the  separate  generators.  At  the  place  on  the  conduit 
where  the  alcoholic  liquid  is  to  be  introduced  into  the  generator 
is  a  discharge-pipe  also  provided  with  a  spigot. 

When  the  factory  is  to  be  put  in  operation  the  reservoir  is  first 
filled  with  alcoholic  liquid,  the  spigots  on  the  several  generators 
being  entirely  open,  but  the  principal  spigot  closed.  Now,  by 
suddenly  opening  the  latter,  the  air  in  the  conduit  is  expelled 
by  the  alcoholic  liquid  flowing  in,  and  the  latter  rushes  in  a  full 
stream  from  the  spigots  connecting  the  conduit  with  the  genera- 
tors. These  spigots  are  then  closed  so  far  that  only  the  quantity 
of  alcoholic  liquid  required  for  the  regular  process  of  the  forma- 
tion of  vinegar  can  enter  the  generators.  To  prevent  the  force 
of  pressure  from  varying  too  much  in  the  conduit  by  the  lower- 
ing of  the  level  of  the  fluid  in  the  reservoir,  it  is  recommended 
to  give  the  latter  only  a  slight  height  but  a  large  bottom  surface. 

From  the  lower  portion  of  the  uppermost  series  of  generators 
the  alcoholic  fluid  then  gradually  reaches  through  a  pipe  the  false 
bottoms  of  the  next  series,  and  from  this  the  lowest  series  from 
which  it  runs  oif  as  finished  vinegar  into  the  collecting  vessel. 

It  will  readily  be  seen  that  some  time  for  experimenting  is 
required  before  a  factory  arranged  according  to  this  system  can 
be  brought  into  regular  working  order,  it  being  necessary  to  test 
the  fluids  running  off  from  the  different  groups  of  generators  as 
to  their  contents  of  acetic  acid  in  order  to  find  out  whether  too 
much  or  too  little  or  just  enough  alcoholic  liquid  reaches  the 
generator  so  that  the  liquid  running  off  from  the  lowest  series 
contains  no  alcohol  and  may  be  considered  as  finished  vinegar. 
Any  fault  in  the  working  of  the  generators  can  in  this  case  be 
overcome  by  a  corresponding  adjustment  of  the  spigots  so  as  to 
regulate  the  influx  of  alcoholic  liquid. 

Theoretically  no  more  simple  or  convenient  process  for  the 
fabrication  of  vinegar  than  the  terrace  system  could  be  devised. 
Provided  the  spigots  supplying  the  separate  generators  be  once 
correctly  adjusted  and  the  temperature  of  the  different  stories 
suitably  regulated,  it  is  only  necessary  constantly  to  supply  the 
reservoir  with  alcoholic  liquid  and  the  heating  apparatus  with 
fuel  in  order  to  carry  on  the  work  for  any  length  of  time  desired. 


AUTOMATIC   VINEGAR   APPARATUS.  87 

The  disadvantages  connected  with  this  system  having  already  been 
explained  need  not  be  further  referred  to. 

Periodically  working  Apparatus.     The  Three-group  System. 

In  the  second  system  of  automatic  generators  it  has  been 
sought  to  imitate  the  ordinary  working  of  a  vinegar  factory  by 
providing  the  apparatus  with  certain  mechanical  appliances  which 
allow  of  the  distribution  at  certain  stated  intervals  of  any  desired 
quantity  of  alcoholic  liquid  into  the  generators.  The  term 
"periodical"  may  be  applied  to  this  system  of  automatic  appa- 
ratus. 

The  mechanical  appliances  used  for  the  purpose  of  admitting 
at  certain  intervals  a  fixed  quantity  of  alcoholic  fluid  into  the 
generator  may  be  constructed  in  various  ways,  the  tilting  trough, 
shown  in  Figs.  12  and  13,  p.  62,  being  an  example.  By  a  modi- 
fication, of  the  apparatus,  as  shown  in  Fig.  26,  any  desired  quan- 
tity of  fluid  can  with  its  assistance  be  at  certain  intervals  admitted 
to  the  generator.  The  fluid  may  be  either  poured  out  upon  the 
false  bottom,  or,  what  is  more  suitable  for  its  better  distribution, 
used  for  feeding  a  sparger. 

As  seen  from  the  illustration  a  prismatic  box,  whose  bottom  is 
formed  of  two  slightly  inclined  surfaces,  stands  at  a  suitable 
height  over  each  generator.  In  the  box  a  tilting  trough  is  placed 
so  that  its  axis  of  revolution  runs  parallel  with  the  line  formed 
by  the  two  bottom  surfaces  of  the  box.  On  the  point  of  contact 
of  the  two  surfaces  a  pipe  is  inserted  which  extends  to  the  false 
bottom  or  the  funnel  of  the  sparger.  Above  the  box  is  a  spigot 
connected  by  a  conduit  with  a  reservoir  for  the  alcoholic  fluid 
placed  at  a  higher  level.  This  reservoir  serves  for  supplying  a 
large  number  of  generators,  and  can  be  shut  off  by  a  carefully 
adjusted  spigot.  From  the  latter  a  vertical  pipe  leads  to  the 
conduit  running  in  a  horizontal  direction  over  the  generators. 
The  conduit  is  provided  with  small  spigots  which  discharge  the 
fluid  into  the  tilting  troughs. 

By  giving  each  tilting  trough  such  a  size  that,  for  instance, 
each  partition  holds  5  quarts,  and  adjusting  the  spigot  so  that  30 
minutes  are  required  for  filling  one  partition,  the  trough  will,  at 


88 


VIXEGAR,   CIDER,    AND    FRUIT-WINES. 


the  expiration  of  this  time,  tilt  over  and  empty  the  fluid  upon 
the  inclined  surfaces;   from  here  it  runs  into  the  sparger  and 

Fig.  26. 


Modification  of  the  Tilting-Trougli. 

setting  the  latter  in  motion  is  poured  in  the  form  of  a  fine  spray 
over  the  shavings.  Since  the  other  partition  of  the  tilting  trough 
has  the  same  capacity  as  the  first  and  the  quantity  of  alcoholic 
fluid  remains  the  same,  the  trough  will,  after  the  expiration  of  30 
minutes,  again  tilt  over,  and  again  empty  5  quarts  of  fluid,  this 
being  continued  as  long  as  the  reservoir  contains  any  fluid. 

In  place  of  the  tilting  trough  the  so-called  "  siphon-barrel" 
(Fig.  27)  may  be  used  for  effecting  the  discharge  of  a  certain 
quantity  of  fluid  at  a  stated  interval.  In  a  spherical  vessel  placed 
at  a  higher  level  than  the  edge  of  the  funnel  of  the  sparger  is  a 


AUTOMATIC   VINEGAR   APPARATUS. 


89 


siphon,  the  longer  leg  of  which  passes  through  the  bottom  of  the 
vessel  and  enters  the  funnel.  On  the  edge  of  the  vessel  is  a 
spigot  which  is  connected  with  the  fluid-conduit  and  so  adjusted 
that  within  a  previously  determined  space  of  time  the  vessel  is 
filled  with  fluid  up  to  the  height  indicated  by  the  dotted  line.  As 
soon  as  the  fluid  reaches  that  height,  the  action  of  the  siphon 


Siphon-barrel. 

commences  and  the  content  of  the  vessel  runs  through  the  longer 
leg  into  the  funnel  of  the  sparger  until  its  level  is  sunk  to  the 
edge  of  the  shorter  leg.  The  action  of  the  siphon  then  ceases 
until  the  vessel  is  again  filled  up  to  the  line  when  it  recommences 
and  so  on. 

The  siphon  of  bent  glass  tubes  being  very  liable  to  breakage, 
it  is  frequently  replaced  by  the  so-called  bell-siphon  the  arrange- 
ment of  which  is  shown  in  Fig.  28.  It  consists  of  a  glass  tube 
which  forms  the  longer  leg,  of  the  siphon  while  a  glass  cylinder 
secured  to  this  tube  by  means  of  a  perforated  cork  represents  the 
other  leg.  The  action  of  this  siphon  is  the  same  as  the  other. 

In  working  with  automatic  apparatus  fixed  quantities  of  fluid 
being  at  stated  intervals  introduced,  provision  for  the  reception  of 


90 


VINEGAR,   CIDER,    AND   FRUIT-WINES. 


the  fluid  must  be  made  in  the  apparatus  itself,  or  for  its  being 
conducted  to  a  special  reservoir  at  the  rate  at  which  it  trickles 
from  the  shavings.  In  the  first  case  the.  space  beneath  the  lath- 
bottom  must  be  of  sufficient  size  to  receive  the  fluid  passed  through 

the  apparatus  in  a  certain  time.    This 
Fi£.  28.  time  being  suitably  fixed  for  12  hours 

the  apparatus  can  during  this  time 
work  without  further  assistance,  so 
that  the  required  space  beneath  the 
lath-bottom  can  be  calculated  by  mul- 
tiplying the  number  of  affusions  with 
the  quantity  of  fluid  poured  in  at  one 
time. 

Example : — The  generator  receives 
at  intervals  of  30  minutes  an  affusion 
of  5  quarts,  hence  in  12  hours  24  affu- 
sions of  5  quarts  each  =  120  quarts. 
The  space  beneath  the  lath-bottom 
must,  therefore,  be  of  sufficient  capa- 
city to  receive  up  to  the  height  of  the 
Bell-siphon.  draught-holes  at  least  120  quarts  of 

fluid. 

As  will  be  seen  from  the  following  general  description  of  a 
vinegar  factory  arranged  according  to  the  automatic  principle,  it 
is  decidedly  preferable  to  arrange  the  generators  so  that  the  fluid 
trickling  from  the  shavings  is  at  once  conducted  to  a  collecting 
vessel. 


Arrangement  of  a  Vinegar  Factory  working  according  to  the 
Automatic  Principle. 

As  previously  stated,  it  is  not  possible  to  convert  all  the  alcohol 
contained  in  the  liquid  into  acetic  acid  by  one  affusion ;  only  a 
portion  of  the  alcohol  is  converted  and  this  semi-product  is  brought 
into  a  second  generator,  and,  if  the  liquid  used  is  very  rich  in  al- 
cohol, into  a  third.  In  the  second  apparatus  another  portion  of 
the  alcohol  is  converted  into  acetic  acid  and  the  process  finished 
in  the  third. 


AUTOMATIC   VINEGAR   APPARATUS.  91 

It  being  in  all  cases  advisable  to  prepare  vinegar  with  a  high 
percentage  of  acetic  acid  most  manufacturers  now  pass  the  alco- 
holic liquid  successively  through  three  generators.  In  practice 
it  is  recommended  to  place  the  generators  which  are  to  receive 
alcoholic  liquid  of  the  same  content  of  acetic  acid  alongside  each 
other,  which  leads  naturally  to  the  division  of  the  generators  into 
three  groups.  If,  for  instance,  a  factory  contains  48  generators, 
each  group  contains  16  ;  group  I  is  charged  with  freshly  prepared 
alcoholic  liquid  ;  the  generators  of  group  II  contain  the  alcoholic 
liquid  which  has  already  passed  through  those  of  group  I,  and 
group  III  is  charged  with  the  fluid  yielded  by  group  II. 

Besides  the  easy  control  of  the  work,  this  arrangement  into 
groups  has  another  advantage.  The  generators  in  which  the  last 
remnants  of  the  alcohol  of  a  quite  strong  fluid  are  to  be  converted 
into  acetic  acid  are  best  kept  at  a  somewhat  higher  temperature, 
and  with  a  suitably  arranged  heating  apparatus  and  the  eventual 
use  of  curtains  by  which  the  workroom  can  be  divided  at  will 
into  two  or  three  partitions,  it  can  be  readily  arranged  to  convey 
somewhat  more  heat  to  the  second  group  of  generators  and  the 
greatest  quantity  to  the  third. 

The  height  of  the  actual  workroom  of  the  factory  should  not 
be  greater  than  required  by  that  of  the  generators.  The  reservoir 
is  placed  under  the  roof  of  the  workroom,  while  the  collecting 
vessels  are  either  sunk  in  the  floor  or  placed  in  the  cellar. 

Below  is  given  a  description  of  a  periodically  working  estab- 
lishment with  24  generators.  The  generators  are  arranged  in 
three  groups,  I,  II,  and  III,  the  following  articles  belonging  to 
each  group : — 

8  generators ; 

1  reservoir; 

1  collecting  vessel ; 

8  apparatuses  for  the  distribution  of  the  alcoholic  liquid  into 
the  generators ; 

Conduits  for  the  alcoholic  liquid  to  be  poured  in  ; 

Conduits  for  the  alcoholic  liquid  running  off. 

For  the  three  groups  in  common  : — 

A  pump  to  convey  the  alcoholic  liquid  from  the  collecting 
vessels  to  the  reservoirs. 


92  VINEGAR,   CIDER,   AND   FRUIT-WINES. 

A  channel  for  the  conveyance  of  the  warm  air  from  the  heat- 
ing apparatus  in  the  cellar  to  and  distribution  in  the  workroom. 

An  apparatus  for  heating  the  alcoholic  liquid. 

The  three  reservoirs  rest  upon  the  joists  of  the  ceiling  of  the 
workroom,  a  small  chamber  inclosing  them  being  constructed  of 
papered  boards.  In  the  floor  of  these  chambers  is  a  manhole  by 
which  the  reservoirs  can  be  reached.  This  manhole  should  not 
be  provided  with  a  door,  it  being  of  importance  that  the  reser- 
voirs should  be  constantly  surrounded  by  warm  air  which  as- 
cends through  the  manhole.  To  prevent  loss  by  evaporation  the 
reservoirs  should  be  provided  with  well-fitting  covers. 

To  retain  solid  bodies  such  as  shavings,  flakes  of  mother  of 
vinegar,  etc.,  which  might  eventually  obstruct  the  fine  apertures 
in  the  false  bottom  or  sparger,  a  filter  is  placed  on  the  end  of  the 
pipe  through  which  the  alcoholic  liquid  passes  into  the  reservoirs. 
A  suitable  filter  for  the  purpose  is  a  horse-hair  sieve  containing  a 
linen  bag,  the  latter  being  from  time  to  time  replaced  by  a  new 
one. 

The  conduits  for  the  conveyance  of  the  alcoholic  liquid  to  the 
distributing  vessels  and  from  there  to  the  generators  are  best  con- 
structed of  thick  glass  tubes,  the  connection  of  two  pieces  being 
effected  by  pieces  of  rubber  hose  pushed  over  the  ends  and  se- 
cured with  twine. 

Each  generator  may  be  furnished  with  a  vessel  containing  the 
automatic  arrangement,  it  being,  however,  in  this  case  necessary 
to  provide  for  each  a  special  conduit  from  the  reservoir,  which  for 
a  factory  containing  a  large  number,  of  generators  is  rather  ex- 
pensive. Hence  it  is  recommended  to  use  for  each  group  only 
one  or  at  the  utmost  two  distributing  vessels,  and  from  them  to 
extend  smaller  conduits  to  the  separate  generators.  Each  of  the 
principal  conduits  is  provided,  at  the  place  where  it  enters  the  dis- 
tributing vessel,  with  a  cock,  which  is  adjusted  for  the  discharge 
of  a  certain  quantity  of  alcoholic  liquid.  If,  as  above  mentioned, 
every  generator  is  to  receive  an  affusion  of  5  quarts  of  alcoholic 
liquid  every  30  minutes,  the  distributing  vessel  serving  for  a 
group  of  8  generators  must  have  a  capacity  of  40  quarts,  and 
the  spigot  has  to  be  so  adjusted  that  exactly  this  quantity  passes 
through  it  in  30  minutes. 


AUTOMATIC   VINEGAR   APPARATUS.  93 

The  discharge-pipe  of  the  automatic  arrangement  must  enter  a 
space,  in  which  are  inserted  eight  pipes  having  the  same  diameter, 
which  conduct  the  alcoholic  liquid  to  the  separate  generators.  By 
this  arrangement  all  the  generators  receive  simultaneously  an 
affusion  of  an  equal  quantity  of  fluid,  which  either  sets  the 
sparger  in  motion  or  gradually  trickles  through  the  apertures  in 
the  false  bottom.  The  alcoholic  liquid  which  has  passed  through 
the  generators  collects  either  in  the  space  under  the  lath-bottom 
or  runs  directly  through  conduits  to  the  collecting  vessels. 

The  conduits  placed  before  the  discharge  apertures  of  the 
generators  are  intended  to  conduct  the  alcoholic  liquid  to  the 
reservoirs,  and  there  being  no  pressure  of  fluid  in  them  they 
might  be  merely  of  open  gutters.  For  the  sake  of  cleanliness  and 
to  avoid  losses  by  evaporation  it  is,  however,  advisable  to  use 
glass  tubes  for  the  purpose.  At  the  places  where  the  discharge- 
pipes  of  the  generators  are  located,  the  connection  of  two  glass 
tubes  is  effected  by  a  wooden  joint  with  an  aperture  on  top  in 
which  is  placed  a  glass  funnel.  For  collecting  vessels  for  the 
alcoholic  fluid  running  off  from  the  generators  of  one  group,  vats 
provided  with  lids  are  used.  They  have  to  be  placed  so  low  that 
some  fall  can  be  given  to  the  conduits,  and  in  each  of  them  is 
a  pipe  provided  with  a  spigot,  which  serves  as  a  suction-pipe  for  the 
pump  intended  to  raise  the  alcoholic  fluid. 

The  manner  of  working  in  a  factory  thus  arranged  is  as 
follows  :*  The  collecting  vessel  Sx  serves  for  the  preparation  of  the 
alcoholic  liquid,  which  is  then  pumped  into  the  reservoir  Vj, 
from  whence  it  runs  through  the  first  group  of  generators,  EI?  to 
the  collecting  vessel  Sn.  From  this  it  is  pumped  into  Vn,  and 
runs  through  the  second  group  of  generators,  En,  into  the  collect- 
ing vessel  Sm.  On  being  pumped  up  the  third  time  it  runs  from 
the  reservoir  Vm  through  the  third  group  of  generators,  Em,  and 
passes  as  finished  vinegar  either  into  a  fourth  collecting  vessel  or 
is  at  once  conducted  into  storing  barrels. 

The  distance  the  alcoholic  liquid  has  to  be  raised  from  the 
bottom  of  the  collecting  vessels  to  the  reservoir  amounting  to  not 

*  To  avoid  repetition  the  collecting  vessels  are  designated:  Si,  n,  and  m  ; 
the  reservoirs  Vi,  u,  and  m  ;  the  groups  of  generators  EI,  u,  in. 


94  VINEGAR,   CIDER,    AND    FRUIT-WINES. 

more  than  from  23  to  25  feet,  an  ordinary  suction-pump  may  be 
used  for  the  purpose,  though  a  forcing-pump  is  better,  it  doing 
the  work  more  rapidly.  The  pump  must  be  constructed  of 
material  entirely  indifferent  to  acetic  acid  (wood,  glass,  hard 
rubber,  tin,  or  a  strongly  silvered  metal). 

Any  metallic  vessels  used  in  the  factory  should  be  of  pure  tin, 
i.  e.,  unalloyed  with  other  metals,  it  being  the  only  metal  entirely 
indifferent  towards  acetic  acid,  but  unfortunately  it  is  too  soft  to 
be  suitable  for  the  construction  of  pumps. 

The  pump  is  generally  located  in  the  immediate  neighborhood 
of  the  collecting  vessels,  its  suction-pipe  being  divided  into  three 
branches  and  fastened  into  the  latter.  If  one  of  the  collecting 
vessels  is  to  be  emptied,  the  respective  spigot  is  opened  and  the 
spigots  of  the  other  suction-pipes  closed. 

Ordinary  well  or  river  water  being  used  in  the  preparation  .of 
the  alcoholic  liquid,  the  temperature  of  the  latter  does  not  gene- 
rally exceed  54°  F.,  and  if  it  were  thus  introduced  into  the  gene- 
rators acetification  would  be  very  sluggish  until  the  temperature 
rose  above  68°  F.  Independently  of  the  loss  of  time,  there  would 
be  the  further  danger  of  injuring  the  development  of  the  vinegar 
ferment;  hence  it  is  necessary  to  heat  the  alcoholic  liquid  to  the 
temperature  required.  This  is  best  effected  by  passing  it  through 
a  coil  surrounded  by  hot  water.  Fig.  29  shows  an  apparatus  es- 
pecially adapted  for  heating  the  alcoholic  liquid.  In  a  copper  or 
iron  boiler  filled  with  water,  which  can  be  heated  from  below,  is 
a  coil,  8,  of  pure  tin  ;  it  enters  the  boiler  above  at  a  and  leaves  it 
at  b,  so  that  the  place  of  influx  is  at  the  same  level  with  that  of 
discharge.  With  this  form  of  construction  the  coil  of  course  re- 
mains always  filled  with  liquid,  which  with  the  use  of  pure  tin  is, 
however,  of  no  consequence ;  besides,  this  can  be  remedied  by 
placing  on  the  lowest  coil  a  narrow  pipe,  R,  which  projects  above 
the  edge  of  the  boiler  and  is  bent  like  a  siphon.  By  opening  the 
spigot  h  the  fluid  contained  in  the  coil  runs  off  through  R. 

The  rising  pipe  of  the  forcing-pump  is  provided  with  an  ar- 
rangement by  which  the  alcoholic  liquid  can  be  brought  either 
directly  from  the  collecting  vessels  into  the  reservoirs  or  first 
forced  through  the  heating  apparatus.  It  consists  of  a  prismatic 
wooden  body  provided  with  three  spigots.  By  closing  spigots  2 


AUTOMATIC   VINEGAR   APPARATUS. 


95 


and  3  and  opening  1,  the  alcoholic  liquid  is  immediately  conveyed 
from  the  collecting  vessel  to  the  reservoir.  By  closing  spigot  1 
and  opening  2  and  3,  which  are  connected  by  short  pieces  of 
rubber  hose  with  the  ends  of  the  coil  S,  the  alcoholic  liquid 
forced  upward  from  the  collecting  vessels  by  the  pump  must  pass 
through  the  heating  coil,  and  after  being  heated  it  returns  to  the 

Fig.  29. 


Apparatus  for  heating  the  Alcoholic  Liquid. 

rising  pipe  which  conveys  it  to  the  reservoirs.  The  arrows  in  the 
illustration  indicate  the  course  the  alcoholic  liquid  has  to  traverse 
when  spigots  2  and  3  are  open  and  1  closed. 

The  diameter  and  length  of  the  tin  coil  depend  on  the  quantity 
of  fluid  which  is  to  pass  through  it,  though  one  with  a  clear 
diameter  of  12  to  14  inches  and  a  length  of  23  to  26  feet  will, 
as  a  rule,  suffice ;  besides  by  slower  or  quicker  pumping  the  fluid 
can  be  forced  with  less  or  greater  velocity  through  the  coil  and 
correspondingly  more  or  less  heated.  The  walls  of  the  coil 
should  be  as  thin  as  possible  so  as  to  yield  heat  rapidly. 


96  VINEGAR,   CIDER,   AND   FRUIT-WINES. 

The  heating  of  the  alcoholic  liquid,  of  course,  can  also  be 
effected  by  heating  one  portion  more  strongly  than  necessary  and 
reducing  it  to  the  required  temperature  by  mixing  with  cold  fluid. 
In  working,  however,  with  a  fluid  containing  living  vinegar  fer- 
ment — and  such,  as  will  be  explained  later  on,  is  claimed  to  be 
already  contained  in  freshly  prepared  alcoholic  fluid — care  must 
be  had  not  to  heat  the  fluid  above  120°  F.,  this  temperature  being 
destructive  to  the  ferment. 


CHAPTER    X. 

OPERATIONS   IN   A   VINEGAR   FACTORY. 

Acidulation  of  the  Generators. 

THE  object  of  acidulation  is  to  completely  saturate  the  filling 
of  the  generators  with  vinegar  and  to  cause  the  development  of 
the  vinegar  ferment  upon  the  filling  material,  shavings,  char- 
coal, etc.  The  generators  are  first  filled  with  shavings,  wooden 
blocks,  pieces  of  charcoal,  etc. ;  the  false  bottoms  or  spargers  are 
next  placed  in  position  and  the  temperature  of  the  workroom 
brought  close  up  to  86°  F.  Acidulation,  i.  e.,  saturating  the 
shavings  with  alcoholic  liquid,  is  then  commenced,  vinegar  of  the 
same  strength,  i.  e.,  with  the  same  content  of  acetic  acid,  as  that 
which  is  to  be  manufactured  in  the  generators  being  used  for  the 
purpose.  Every  cubic  meter  (35.31  cubic  feet)  of  the  space  filled 
with  shavings  or  charcoal  requires  for  complete  acidulation  the 
following  quantities  of  vinegar  : — 

Shavings  loosely  poured  in      230  to  270  liters  (  60.75  to    71.31  gallons). 
Shavings  piled  up  alongside 

each  other 340  to  400     "      (  89.8    to  105.65       " 

Charcoal  the  size  of  a  walnut  540  to  800    "      (142.6    to  211.3         " 

The  value  of  this  vinegar  used  for  acidulation  has  to  be  con- 
sidered as  dead  capital. 

The  first  vinegar  miming  off  from  the  generators  is  not  only 
considerably  weaker  than  that  used  for  acidulation,  but,  notwith- 
standing the  previous  lixiviation  of  the  wood,  has  a  disagreeable 


OPERATIONS   IN   A   VINEGAR   FACTORY.  97 

taste  so  as  to  render  it  unfit  for  the  preparation  of  table  vinegar, 
and  can  only  be  utilized,  for  instance,  in  the  preparation  of  ace- 
tate of  lead,  etc.  When  the  vinegar  running  off  has  acquired  a 
pure  taste,  it  is  collected  by  itself  and  later  converted  into  a 
stronger  product  by  mixing  it  with  alcohol  and  passing  again 
through  the  generators.  By  this  saturation  of  the  shavings  with 
vinegar,  the  vinegar  ferment  locates  in  abundance  upon  the  sur- 
face of  the  shavings  and  the  generators  are  fit  for  the  formation 
of  vinegar. 

The  regular  fabrication  can,  however,  be  commenced  only 
gradually,  as  may  be  illustrated  by  the  following  example  :  At 
first,  for  instance,  alcoholic  liquid  is  introduced  only  once  a  day, 
either  early  in  the  morning  or  in  the  evening.  In  about  eight 
days,  or  under  certain  conditions  even  later,  the  temperature  in 
the  interior  has  risen  to  from  86°  to  95°  F.,  and  alcoholic  liquid 
may  now  be  introduced  twice  daily,  for  instance,  early  in  the 
morning  and  in  the  afternoon.  That  the  generator  works,  is  re- 
cognized by  the  increased  temperature  and  by  the  flame  of  a 
candle  held  near  a  draught-hole  being  drawn  inwards.  After  8 
to  14  days  more  the  thermometer  shows  96°  to  98°  F.,  and  then 
alcoholic  liquid  is  introduced  three  times  daily,  for  instance,  early 
in  the  morning,  in  the  forenoon,  and  in  the  afternoon,  whereby 
the  temperature  rises  to  102°  to  104°  F.  If  now  the  vinegar 
running  off  shows  the  intended  strength,  the  generators  are  in 
good  working  order  and  subjected  to  the  regular  treatment. 

Accelerated  Acidulation. 

By  closely  considering  the  processes  which  must  take  place  in 
acidification  and  the  first  stage  of  the  operation,  it  will  be  plainly 
seen  that  the  above-described  method  cannot  be  called  a  rational 
one,  there  being  a  waste  of  time  as  well  as  of  material  and  the 
commencement  of  regular  working  being  largely  dependent  on 
accident. 

The  object  of  acidulation  is,  as  previously  stated,  first  to  thor- 
oughly saturate  the  shavings  with  vinegar  and  next  to  develop  the 
vinegar  ferment  upon  them.  This  can,  however,  be  attained  in  a 
more  suitable  and  a  quicker  manner  than  by  the  above  process. 


(TJ1TIVBRSITY 


98  VINEGAR,   CIDER,    AND   FRUIT-WINES. 

Air-dried  wood  contains  on  an  average  20  per  cent,  of  water 
and  during  acidulation  this  water  must  be  gradually  replaced  by 
vinegar  ;  hence  the  vinegar  trickling  from  the  generators  will 
remain  poor  in  acetic  acid  and  rich  in  water  until  the  shavings 
are  entirely  saturated  with  pure  vinegar  and  the  water  is  expelled. 

The  removal  of  the  water  from  the  shavings  and  its  substitu- 
tion by  vinegar  are  effected  by  osmose,  i.  e.,  the  cells  of  the  wood 
surrounded  by  vinegar  yield  a  fluid  consisting  of  water  and  ex- 
tractive substances  of  the  wood  and  absorb  sufficient  of  the 
exterior  fluid  until  both  liquids  have  the  same  composition.  Now, 
by  pouring  only  a  small  quantity  of  vinegar  at  one  time  over  the 
shavings  in  the  generators,  as  is  done  in  the  acidulation  according 
to  the  old  method,  the  course  of  the  process  is  very  slow,  14  days 
or  more,  as  already  mentioned,  being  required  before  the  vinegar 
running  off  shows  no  longer  a  change  in  its  concentration. 

In  a  generator  in  a  stage  of  acidulation  an  uninterrupted 
though  slight  current  of  air  upwards  takes  place,  since  even 
with  the  use  of  the  best  heating  apparatus  the  air  in  the  upper 
layers  is  warmer  than  in  the  lower.  This  current  of  air-  becomes 
stronger  with  the  development  of  larger  quantities  of  vinegar 
ferment  and  causes  a  large  absolute  loss  of  vinegar;  the  greater 
portion  of  this  loss  must  be  set  down  as  being  due  to  evaporation, 
which  must  be  considerable  on  account  of  the  great  surface  over 
which  the  vinegar  is  distributed,  and  the  smaller  portion  to  con- 
sumption by  the  vinegar  ferment. 

By  placing  the  shavings  in  vinegar  the  above-described  process 
of  substitution  of  vinegar  for  the  fluid  contained  in  the  cells  of 
the  wood  takes  place  very  quickly,  and,  theoretically,  it  would 
therefore  seem  to  be  advisable  to  follow  the  same  course  on  a  large 
scale,  i.  e.,  to  saturate  the  shavings  with  vinegar  before  placing 
them  in  the  generators.  By  using  artificially  dried  shavings 
(see  p.  67)  the  saturation  is  effected  in  the  course  of  a  few  hours, 
the  dry  woody  tissue  absorbing  the  fluid  like  a  sponge. 

The  shavings,  while  still  hot,  are  brought  into  a  vat  and  covered 
with  the  vinegar  to  be  used  for  acidulation.  In  about  12  hours 
they  are  thoroughly  saturated  ;  the  excess  of  vinegar  is  drawn  off 
through  the  tap-hole  in  the  bottom  of  the  vat,  and  having  ab- 
sorbed neither  water  nor  extractive  substances  from  the  steamed 


OPERATIONS   IN   A   VINEGAR   FACTORY.  99 

and  thoroughly  dried  shavings  can  be  immediately  re-used  for  the 
saturation  of  another  portion  of  shavings.  The  saturated  shav- 
ings are  at  once  used  for  filling  a  generator,  and  the  latter,  which 
may  now  be  considered  as  completely  acidulated,  can  at  once  be 
used  for  the  process  of  the  formation  of  vinegar  according  to  the 
method  described  below. 

Instead  of  in.  a  vat  the  shavings  can  also  be  saturated  directly 
in  the  generator.  For  this  purpose  the  shavings,  after  having 
been  artificially  dried,  are  immediately  brought  into  the  generator, 
and  vinegar  is  poured  over  them  either  by  means  of  the  false 
bottom  or  the  sparger  until  a  considerable  quantity  has  accumu- 
lated in  the  space  below  the  lath-bottom.  This  accumulation  is 
then  drawn  off  and  again  poured  over  the  shavings,  this  being 
continued  until  they  are  thoroughly  saturated,  which  is  effected  in 
a  comparatively  short  time. 

Induction  of  the  Operation  with  artificially  raised  Vinegar 
Ferment. 

In  the  accelerated  acidulation  of  the  generators  no  develop- 
ment of  vinegar  ferment  can  of  course  take  place,  since  by  heating 
the  shavings  to  about  212°  F.  any  fermenting  organisms  accident- 
ally adhering  to  them  are  destroyed.  The  vinegar  ferment 
increases  with  astonishing  rapidity  provided  it  finds  nourishment 
suitable  for  its  development.  Vinegar  is,  however,  a  very  poor 
material  for  this  purpose,  and  this  is  very  likely  the  reason  why 
weeks  are  required  before  fabrication  can  be  commenced  in  gen- 
erators acidulated  according  to  the  old  method.  The  ferment  can, 
however,  be  so  rapidly  augmented  in  the  generators  that  fabri- 
cation can  be  commenced  almost  immediately  after  acidulation 
is  complete. 

For  this  purpose  a  method  similar  to  that  employed  in  the 
manufacture  of  alcohol  and  yeast  has  to  be  pursued  and  vigorous 
ferment  obtained  by  cultivation.  As  previously  mentioned  the  fer- 
ment causing  acetous  fermentation  is  widely  distributed  through- 
out nature  and  is  most  abundantly  found  in  the  air  of  thickly 
populated  regions. 

The  "  pure  cultivation"  of  the  vinegar  ferment,  i.  e.,  in  which 


100  VINEGAR,    CIDER,   AND   FRUIT- WINES. 

no  other  than  the  desired  ferment  is  developed,  is  not  difficult,  it 
being  only  necessary  to  prepare  a  fluid  especially  adapted  for  its 
nourishment  and  allow  it  to  stand  at  a  suitable  temperature  in  order 
to  obtain  in  a  few  days  a  vigorous  growth  produced  by  a  few 
individual  germs  reaching  the  fluid  from  the  air.  The  best  fluid 
for  the  purpose  is  one  which  contains,  besides  a  large  quantity  of 
water,  about  85  to  90  per  cent.,  a  certain  amount  of  alcohol  and 
acetic  acid  and  very  small  quantities  of  nitrogenous  substances 
and  mineral  salts.  Hence  its  preparation  is  not  difficult,  it  being 
only  necessary  to  mix  ordinary  vinegar  and  alcohol  in  suitable 
proportions  and  add  a  small  quantity  of  a  fluid  containing  nitro- 
genous substances  and  mineral  salts,  such  as  wine,  cider,  beer  or 
malt  extract.  Numerous  experiments  have  shown  that  a  fluid 
containing  from  4  to  6  per  cent,  of  acetic  acid  and  the  same 
quantity  of  alcohol  with  the  addition  of  a  small  quantity  of  one 
of  the  above-mentioned  fluids  is  best  adapted  for  the  vigorous 
nourishment  of  the  vinegar  ferment.  Ordinary  table  vinegar 
contains  as  a  rule  from  4  to  6  per  cent,  of  acetic  acid ;  the  ave- 
rage percentage  of  alcohol  is  in  wine  from  8  to  10 ;  in  cider  from 
4  to  6  ;  and  in  beer  from  3  to  5.  Taking  this  statement  as  a 
guide,  the  preparation  of  a  fluid  containing  from  4  to  6  per  cent, 
of  acetic  acid,  4  to  6  per  cent,  of  alcohol,  and  the  required  nitro- 
genous combinations  and  salts  will  not  be  difficult. 

Fluids  of  this  composition  are  obtained  by  mixing,  for  in- 
stance, equal  parts  of  cider  and  vinegar,  or  one  part  of  wine 
with  two  of  vinegar,  or  one  part  of  beer  with  three  of  vinegar, 
and  adding  5  per  cent,  of  90  per  cent,  alcohol  to  the  mixture. 
Such  mixtures  possessing  the  power  of  vigorously  nourishing  the 
vinegar  ferment  can  at  the  same  time  be  considered  as  types  for 
the  preparation  of  alcoholic  liquid  of  suitable  composition. 

To  assure  the  exclusive  development  of  vinegar  ferment  upon 
any  of  the  above-mentioned  mixtures  it  is  best  to  heat  it  to  the 
boiling  point  of  water.  Young  wine  as  well  as  cider  contains 
considerable  quantities  of  albuminous  substances  in  solution,  and 
fluids  of  this  nature  being  well  adapted  for  the  nourishment  of 
the  mold  ferment,  the  development  of  the  latter 'might  increase 
to  such  an  extent  as  entirely  to  suppress  the  vinegar  ferment  and 
thus  render  its  cultivation  a  failure.  Beer  is  also  very  suitable 


OPERATIONS   IN   A    VINEGAR    FACTORY.  101 

for  the  nourishment  of  the  mold  ferment,  though  in  a  less  degree 
than  young  wine,  and  besides  living  yeast  contains  alcoholic 
ferment. 

By  heating  wine  or  beer  only  for  a  moment  to  about  158°  F., 
a  large  portion  of  the  albuminous  substances  in  solution  becomes 
insoluble,  and  on  cooling  separates  as  a  flaky  precipitate,  all  fer- 
ments present  in  the  fluid  being  at  the  same  time  destroyed. 
Hence  for  the  preparation  of  a  fluid  especially  adapted  for  the 
cultivation  of  pure  vinegar  ferment,  it  is  recommended  quickly  to 
heat  to  the  boiling  point  1  quart  of  ordinary  white  wine  in  a 
covered  porcelain  vessel,  and,  after  cooling  to  the  ordinary  tem- 
perature, to  mix  it  with  2  quarts  of  vinegar.  To  remove  the 
separated  insoluble  albuminous  substances  it  is  filtered  through 
blotting  paper. 

To  prepare  a  nourishing  fluid  from  beer,  heat  1  quart  to  the 
boiling  point,  mix  it  after  cooling  with  3  quarts  of  vinegar,  add 
^  quart  of  90  per  cent,  alcohol,  and  filter. 

Distribute  this  fluid  in  a  number  of  shallow  porcelain  vessels 
and  place  the  latter  near  a  window  in  the  heated  workroom.  To 
prevent  dust  from  falling  into  the  fluid  cover  each  dish  with  a 
glass  plate  resting  upon  two  small  wooden  sticks  placed  across 
the  dish.  In  two  or  three  days,  and  sometimes  in  24  hours,  the 
commencement  of  the  development  of  the  vinegar  ferment  will 
be  recognized  by  the  stronger  odor  of  vinegar  than  that  possessed 
by  the  original  fluid  and  by  the  appearance  of  the  surface  of 
the  liquid.  By  observing  the  latter  at  a  very  acute  angle,  dull 
patches  resembling  grease  stains  and  consisting  of  a  large  number 
of  individuals  of  the  vinegar  ferment  will  be  seen.  In  a  few 
hours  these  patches  have  increased  considerably,  until  finally  the 
entire  surface  appears  covered  by  a  very  delicate  veil-like  layer 
of  vinegar  ferment. 

By  touching  the  surface  with  the  point  of  a  glass  rod  a  certain 
amount  of  the  coating  adheres  to  it,  and  by  rinsing  it  off  in  a  fluid 
of  similar  composition  not  yet  inoculated  the  ferment  quickly  de- 
velops upon  it.  By  placing  a  drop  of  the  fluid  under  the  micro- 
scope a  picture  similar  to  that  shown  in  Fig.  2,  p.  29,  presents 
itself:  the  entire  field  of  vision  is  covered  with  germs  of  vinegar 
ferment. 


102 


VINEGAR,   CIDER,    AND   FRUIT-WINES. 


By  the  development  of  mold  ferment  the  cultivation  of  pure 
vinegar  ferment  may  sometimes  result  in  failure  even  with  the 
use  of  the  above-mentioned  fluids.  The  development  of  this 
ferment  is  recognized  by  the  appearance  of  white  dots  upon  the 
fluid,  which  quickly  increase  to  white  opaque  flakes,  and  if  left 
to  themselves  finally  combine  to  a  white  skin  of  a  peculiar 
wrinkled  appearance.  Fig.  30  shows  a  microscopical  picture 


Abortive  Cultivation  of  Vinegar  Ferment.    X  500. 

of  such  abortive  cultivation  of  vinegar  ferment.  By  observing 
at  the  commencement  of  this  phenomenon  the  fluid  with  the 
microscope,  very  small  individuals  of  vinegar  ferment,  6,  will  be 
observed  alongside  of  the  much  larger  oval  cells  a,  of  the  mold 
ferment.  Such  fluid  being  not  adapted  for  our  purposes  has  to 
be  removed  and  the  dish  rinsed  off  with  boiling  water. 

When  the  fluid  in  the  dishes  is  entirely  covered  with  pure 
vinegar  ferment,  it  is  poured  into  a  vessel  containing  the  greater 
portion  of  the  alcoholic  fluid  intended  for  the  first  charge  of  the 
generators,  and  in  the  course  of  10  hours  the  entire  surface  of 
this  fluid  is  covered  with  vinegar  ferment.  This  fluid  being 
poured  into  the  sufficiently  acidulated  generators  and  trickling 


OPERATIONS   IN   A   VINEGAR   FACTORY.  103 

gradually  through  them,  the  greater  portion  of  the  ferment  ad- 
heres to  the  shavings,  and  increases  with  such  rapidity  that  the 
strong  rise  of  temperature  in  the  interior  of  the  generators 
shortly  indicates  the  regular  beginning  of  their  activity,  and  the 
effusion  of  alcoholic  liquid  can  be  commenced  at  once. 

Vinegar  ferment  developed  upon  one  of  the  above-mentioned 
fluids  is  evidently  so  constituted  that  it  can  be  thoroughly  nour- 
ished by  it,  and  hence  the  generators  might  be  continued  to  be 
charged  with  alcoholic  liquid  of  a  corresponding  composition.  It 
being,  however,  as  a  rule,  desired  to  manfacture  as  strong  a  pro- 
duct as  possible,  an  alcoholic  liquid  much  richer  in  alcohol  than 
the  above-mentioned  nourishing  fluids  has  to  be  used. 

By,  however,  suddenly  changing  the  nourishing  fluid  of  the 
vinegar  ferment,  for  instance,  from  a  fluid  containing  only  4  to 
6  per  cent,  of  alcohol  to  one  with  12  to  13  per  cent.,  the  action 
of  the  ferment  would  very  likely  be  sluggish  before  it  became 
accustomed  to  the  new  conditions.  Further,  its  activity  might 
suffer  serious  disturbance  and  its  augmentation  decrease  very 
sensibly,  so  that  notwithstanding  strong  heating  of  the  workroom 
and  thorough  ventilation  of  the  generators,  the  temperature  in 
the  latter  would  suddenly  fall,  and  would  only  be  restored  to  the 
required  degree  after  the  ferment  had  become  accustomed  to  the 
new  conditions  and  recommenced  its  vigorous  augmentation. 

To  overcome  such  annoying  disturbances  it  is  only  necessary  to 
gradually  change  the  composition  of  the  nourishing  fluid  to  that 
which  the  alcoholic  liquid  to  be  worked  in  the  generators  is  to 
have.  Commencing,  for  instance,  with  an  alcoholic  liquid  con- 
taining 5  per  cent,  of  alcohol,  the  next  day  one  with  6  per  cent, 
is  used,  the  succeeding  day  one  with  7  per  cent.,  and  so  on  until 
the  maximum  percentage  of  alcohol  the  liquid  is  to  have  is 
reached. 


104  VINEGAR,   CIDER,    AND   FRUIT-WINES. 


CHAPTER  XL 

PREPARATION    OF   THE   ALCOHOLIC   LIQUID. 

UNDER  the  term  "  alcoholic  liquid"  is  to  be  understood  every 
fluid  to  be  converted  into  vinegar  which,  besides  water  and  small 
quantities  of  nourishing  salts  and  albuminous  substances,  does 
not  contain  over  14  per  cent,  of  alcohol.  In  the  directions 
generally  given  for  the  preparation  of  such  liquids  vinegar  is 
mentioned  as  an  indispensable  constituent.  While  it  cannot  be 
denied  that  a  content  of  vinegar  in  the  alcoholic  liquid  exerts  a 
favorable  effect  upon  the  formation  of  vinegar,  it  must  be  ex- 
plicitly stated  that  it  is  not  the  acetic  acid  in  the  vinegar,  which 
in  this  case  becomes  active,  but  the  ferment  contained  in  it. 

In  a  vinegar  factory  vinegar  just  finished  and  entirely  turbid 
is  always  used  for  the  preparation  of  alcoholic  liquid,  and  a 
microscopical  examination  shows  such  vinegar  to  contain  in- 
numerable germs  of  vinegar  ferment.  This  ferment  on  coming 
in  contact  with  much  air  in  the  generators  will  evidently  increase 
rapidly  and  contribute  to  the  quick  acetification  of  the  alcohol. 
That  it  is  actually  the  ferment  in  the  vinegar  used  which  exerts 
a  favorable  effect  can  be  shown  by  a  simple  experiment.  By 
adding  vinegar  previously  heated  to  from  140°  to  158°  F.  to  the 
alcoholic  liquid  the  formation  of  vinegar  in  the  generators  pro- 
ceeds more  slowly,  the  ferment  contained  in  the  vinegar  having 
been  killed. 

The  best  proof,  however,  that  the  alcoholic  liquid  does  not  re- 
quire any  considerable  quantity  of  acetic  acid  for  its  conversion 
into  vinegar  is  furnished  by  the  behavior  of  wine.  Correctly 
prepared  wine  of  a  normal  composition  contains  only  a  few  ten 
thousands  of  its  weight  of  acetic  acid,  and  this  must  very  likely 
be  considered  as  a  product  of  vinous  fermentation.  If  such  wine 
be  stored  for  years  in  a  cool  cellar,  its  content  of  acetic  acid  does 
not  change.  By,  however,  exposing  such  wine  in  a  shallow 


PREPARATION   OF   THE   ALCOHOLIC   LIQUID.  105 

vessel  to  the  air  at  from  66°  to  78°  F.,  microscopical  examina- 
tion will  show  the  development  of  vinegar  ferment  upon  it  and  a 
chemical  analysis  a  constant  increase,  soon  amounting  to  several 
per  cent,  of  acetic  acid.  A  fluid  composed  of  5  to  6  per  cent,  of 
alcohol,  94  to  95  per  cent,  of  water,  and  a  very  small  quantity  of 
malt  extract  acts  in  a  similar  manner.  In  many  cases  the  vinegar 
ferment  is  developed  without  the  fluid  containing  acetic  acid. 

The  alcoholic  fluid  to  be  used  may  from  the  start  contain  a 
sufficiently  large  percentage  of  alcohol  to  correspond  to  the  de- 
sired strength  of  the  vinegar  to  be  made ;  in  this  case  the  fluid 
has  to  be  poured  several  times  into  the  generators,  it  being  impos- 
sible to  convert  a  large  quantity  of  alcohol  into  acetic  acid  by 
passing  it  through  but  once.  By  another  method  an  alcoholic 
liquid  is  first  prepared  containing  but  little  alcohol,  which  is 
almost  completely  converted  into  acetic  acid  by  one  passage 
through  the  generators.  The  fluid  running  off  from  the  gene- 
rators is  then  further  mixed  with  a  certain  quantity  of  alcohol 
and  being  poured  into  a  generator,  in  which  the  vinegar  ferment 
is  already  accustomed  to  larger  quantities  of  alcohol  and  vinegar, 
is  also  converted  into  acetic  acid.  More  alcohol  can  then  be 
added,  and  so  on.  The  last  method  is  evidently  the  best  as  re- 
gards the  conditions  of  life  of  the  vinegar  ferment,  and  actually 
the  only  one  by  which  the  strongest  vinegar  (with  from  12  to  13 
per  cent,  of  acetic  acid)  can  be  obtained  in  generators. 

That  it  is  advisable  only  gradually  to  increase  the  content  of 
alcohol  in  the  alcoholic  liquid  is  shown  by  the  behavior  of  the 
ferment  towards  alcohol  and  acetic  acid.  Both  bodies,  if  present 
in  large  quantities,  are  decidedly  inimical  to  the  augmentation  of 
the  ferment,  a  fluid  containing  from  14  to  15  per  cent,  of  alcohol, 
or  as  much  acetic  acid,  being  capable  of  checking  the  augmenta- 
tion of  the  ferment  to  such  an  extent  as  to  disturb  the  process  of 
fabrication. 

Another  argument  against  the  use  of  the  total  quantity  of 
alcohol  in  the  preparation  of  the  alcoholic  liquid  to  be  employed 
for  the  first  effusion,  is  the  fact  that  evidently  more  alcohol  will 
be  lost  by  evaporation  than  by  commencing  with  a  fluid  contain- 
ing less  alcohol,  arid  adding  a  corresponding  quantity  of  the 
latter  after  the  fluid  has  once  passed  through  the  generators. 


106  VINEGAR,   CIDER,    AND   FRUIT-WINES. 

The  quantity  of  alcohol  for  the  first  effusion  should  be  so  chosen 
that  the  fluid  running  off  still  contains  a  small  quantity  of  un- 
changed alcohol,  this  being  an  assurance  that  only  alcohol  and 
not  unfinished  acetic  acid  has  undergone  an  alteration.  As  long 
as  alcohol  is  present  in  the  alcoholic  liquid  the  vinegar  ferment  is 
almost  entirely  indifferent  towards  acetic  acid,  but  after  the  oxi- 
dation of  all  the  alcohol  it  attacks  the  acetic  acid  and  decomposes 
it  to  carbonic  acid  and  water.  This  can  be  shown  by  a  very 
simple  experiment.  If  finished  vinegar,  instead  of  alcoholic 
liquid,  be  poured  into  a  generator  in  full  operation,  the  vinegar 
running  off  shows  a  smaller  percentage  of  acetic  acid  than  that 
poured  in,  the  acetic  acid  wanting  having  been  destroyed  by  the 
ferment. 

To  what  an  extent  even  smaller  quantities  than  14  to  15  per 
cent,  of  alcohol  or  acetic  acid  exert  a  restraining  influence  upon 
the  augmentation  and  activity  of  the  vinegar  ferment  can  be  seen 
in  generators  charged  with  alcoholic  liquid  of  different  strengths  : 
those  containing  less  concentrated  liquid  can  in  the  same  time 
form  a  much  larger  quantity  of  acetic  acid  than  those  ill  which  a 
liquid  is  used  which  already  contains  certain  quantities  of  acetic 
acid.  Hence  the  greater  the  quantity  of  acetic  acid  already  con- 
tained in  the  alcoholic  liquid  the  slower  the  conversion  of  the 
alcohol  still  present  into  acetic  acid. 

It  may,  therefore,  be  laid  down  as  a  rule  that  the  manufacturer 
should  not  strive  to  prepare  vinegar  with  more  than  about  12 
per  cent,  of  acetic  acid.  Though  in  exceptional  cases  a  product 
with  13  per  cent,  can  be  obtained,  it  will  also  be  observed  that 
the  respective  generators  gradually  yield  a  weaker  product  or  that 
their  activity  suddenly  ceases  to  such  an  extent  as  to  require  them 
to  be  placed  out  of  operation.. 

The  preparation  of  high-graded  vinegar  being  undoubtedly 
subject  to  greater  difficulties  than  that  of  a  weaker  product, 
the  question  might  be  raised  whether  the  manufacture  of  weak 
vinegar  only  would  not  be  the  most  suitable.  This  must  be 
largely  decided  by  local  conditions.  For  a  manufacturer  whose 
custom  lies  in  the  immediate  neighborhood,  for  instance,  in  a 
large  city,  the  production  of  weak  vinegar  only  would  be  advis- 
able, but  if  he  has  to  send  his  product  a  considerable  distance, 


PREPARATION   OF   THE   ALCOHOLIC   LIQUID.  107 

the  fact  that  the  more  freight  has  to  be  paid  on  what  is  of  no 
value,  the  weaker  the  vinegar  is,  and  that  the  expense  of  trans- 
porting a  strong  article  is  relatively  less,  deserves  consideration. 
The  consumer  can  readily  prepare  vinegar  of  any  desired  strength 
by  diluting  the  strong  product  with  water. 

The  quantity  of  beer  required  for  the  purpose  of  offering  suit- 
able nourishment  to  the  vinegar  ferment  is  very  small,  an  addition 
of  1  per  cent,  to  the  alcoholic  liquid  being  ample.  Sour  or  stale 
beer  can  of  course  be  used.  The  reason  for  the  employment  of 
larger  quantities  of  beer  in  mixing  the  alcoholic  fluids  is  found 
in  the  fact  that  the  vinegar  prepared  from  such  mixtures  sooner 
acquires  a  pure  taste  than  that  made  from  fluids  containing  but 
little  beer.  The  addition  of  beer  should,  however,  not  exceed  15 
per  cent,  of  the  total  quantity  of  alcoholic  liquid,  as  on  account 
of  the  comparatively  high  percentage  of  albuminous  substances 
and  the  maltose,  dextrin,  and  extractive  matters  of  hops  it  con- 
tains, a  larger  quantity  would  be  injurious  to  the  process  of  acetous 
fermentation,  the  generators  being  frequently  rendered  inactive  by 
the  so-called  "  sliming  of  the  shavings."  The  production  of  the 
latter  is  due  to  the  fact  that  by  being  partially  excluded  from 
contact  with  the  air  by  the  comparatively  thick  fluid  passing  over 
it,  the  vinegar  ferment  deposited  upon  the  shavings  assumes  the 
form  of  mother  of  vinegar  which  adheres  to  the  shavings  as  a 
slimy  mass. 

The  quantity  of  finished  vinegar  added  to  the  alcoholic  liquid 
varies  between  10  and  33  per  cent.  The  use  of  large  quantities 
is,  however,  decidedly  inexpedient  since. the  only  effect  produced 
by  the  vinegar  is,  as  previously  stated,  due  to  the  ferment  con- 
tained in  it.  Of  freshly  prepared,  turbid  vinegar  10  per  cent,  is 
ample  for  the  preparation  of  alcoholic  liquid  ;  a  greater  quantity 
can  only  be  considered  as  useless  ballast. 

Theoretically  a  certain  quantity  of  alcohol  yields  exactly  a 
certain  quantity  of  acetic  acid ;  the  following  table  shows  the 
proportions  between  the  two  bodies  : — 


108 


VINEGAR,    CIDER,   AND   FRUIT-WINES. 


Consists  of  kilo- 

Aad yields— 

In  the  whole. 

A  fluid  with 

grammes  of  — 

per  cent, 
by  volume 
of  alcohol. 

Alcohol. 

Acetic 
Water.        anhydride. 

Water. 

Vinegar. 

With  per  cent, 
of  acetic 
anhydride. 

1 

0.8 

99.2 

1.0 

99.5 

100.5 

1.0 

2 

1.6 

98.4 

2.1 

99.0 

101.1 

2.1 

3 

2.4 

97.6 

3.1 

98.5 

101.6 

3  1 

4 

3.2 

96.8 

4.2 

98.0 

102.2 

4.1 

5 

4.0 

96.0 

5.2 

97-6 

102.8 

5.1 

6 

4.8 

95.2 

6.3 

97.1 

103.3 

6.0 

7 

5.6 

94.4 

7.3 

96.6  - 

103.9 

7.0 

8 

6.4 

93.6 

8.3 

96.1 

104.4 

8.0 

9 

7.2 

92.8 

9.4 

95.6 

105.0 

8.9 

10 

8.0 

91.9 

10.4 

95.0 

105.4 

9.9 

11 

8.9 

91.1 

11.6 

94.6 

106.2 

10.9 

12 

9.7 

90.3 

12.6 

94.1 

106.7 

11.8 

Practically  less  vinegar  with  a  smaller  percentage  of  acetic  an- 
hydride is,  however,  always  obtained,  this  being  due  to  losses-  of 
material  caused  partially  by  evaporation  and  partially  by  the 
oxidation  of  the  alcohol  extending  beyond  the  formation  of  acetic 
acid.  In  preparing  the  alcoholic  liquid  these  unavoidable  losses 
must  be  taken  into  consideration  and  more  alcohol  be  used  for  the 
production  of  vinegar  with  a  determined  percentage  of  acetic  acid 
than  is  theoretically  required.  How  much  more  has  to  be  taken 
depends  on  the  kind  of  apparatus  used  and  on  the  strength  the 
vinegar  to  be  prepared  is  to  show.  The  higher  the  percentage  of 
acetic  acid  which  is  to  be  obtained,  the  greater  the  losses  will  be 
and  consequently  the  greater  the  content  of  alcohol  in  the  alco- 
holic liquid  must  be.  Theoretically  one  per  cent,  of  alcohol  yields 
one  per  cent,  of  acetic  acid ;  practically  the  proportions  are,  how- 
ever, as  follows  : — 


For  the   production   of 
vinegar  with  a  content 
of  acetic  acid  of — 

5  per  cent. 

6  " 


9 

10 
11 
12 


Is  required  an  alco- 
holic liquid  with  a 
content  of  alcohol  of — 

.     5.4  to  5.5  per  cent. 

.     6.5  "    6.6        " 

7.7  " 

8.8  " 

9.9  " 
11.0        " 


7.6 

8.7 

9.8 

10.9 


11.9 
13.0 


12.1 
13.2 


PREPARATION   OF   THE   ALCOHOLIC   LIQUID.  109 

The  strength  of  commercial  alcohol  varying  considerably  it  is 
of  importance  to  the  manufacturer  to  be  able  to  calculate  in  a 
simple  manner  how  many  gallons  of  water  have  to  be  added  to 
alcohol  of  known  strength  in  order  to  obtain  an  alcoholic  liquid 
with  the  desired  percentage  of  alcohol.  The  calculation  is  exe- 
cuted as  follows  : — 

Suppose : 

P  =  per  cent,  of  alcohol  in  the  spirits  to  be  used. 

E  =  per  cent,  of  alcohol  in  the  alcoholic  liquid  to  be  prepared, 
the  quotient  obtained  by  dividing  P  by  E  gives  the  volume  to 
which  the  spirits  have  to  be  reduced  by  the  addition  of  water  in 
order  to  obtain  alcoholic  liquid  with  the  desired  percentage  of 
alcohol. 

Example : — 

From  spirits  of  86  per  cent.  Tralles'  alcoholic  liquid  with  11 
per  cent,  of  alcohol  is  to  be  prepared. 

P 
P=  86;  E=  11  £  =  7.818. 

Hence  one  volume  of  the  spirits  to  be  used  has  to  be  brought 
to  7.818  volumes,  or  to  1  gallon  of  spirits  6.818  gallons  of  water 
have  to  be  added. 

Examples  of  the  composition  of  alcoholic  liquid  : — 

A.  Alcoholic  liquid  from  alcohol,  water,  and  vinegar  : 

For  vinegar  with  about  7  per  cent,  of  acetic  acid. — Alcohol  of 
90  per  cent.  Tr.  10  parts  by  volume,  water  107,  vinegar  with  7 
per  cent,  of  acetic  acid  12. 

For  vinegar  with  about  12  per  cent,  of  acetic  acid. — Alcohol  of 
90  per  cent.  Tr.  10  parts  by  volume,  water  65,  vinegar  with  12 
per  cent,  of  acetic  acid  7. 

It  is  advisable  to  add  about  1  per  cent,  of  the  entire  volume  of 
beer  to  the  above  alcoholic  liquids. 

B.  Alcoholic  liquid  from  alcohol,  water,  vinegar,  and  beer. 
For  vinegar  with  about  5  per  cent,  of  acetic  acid. — Alcohol  of 

90  per  cent.  Tr.  10  parts  by  volume,  water  107,  vinegar  with 
5  per  cent,  of  acetic  acid  13,  beer  14. 

C.  For  vinegar  with  about  8  per  cent,  of  acetic  acid. — Alcohol 
of  90  per  cent.  Tr.  10  parts  by  volume,  water  92,  vinegar  with 
8  per  cent,  of  acetic  acid  10,  beer  9. 


110  VINEGAR,    CIDER,    AND    FRUIT-WINES. 

In  many  factories  it  is  customary  not  to  determine  the  compo- 
sition of  the  alcoholic  liquid  by  calculation,  but  simply  to  work 
according  to  certain  receipts.  Vinegar  of  a  certain  percentage  is 
obtained,  but  its  strength  cannot  be  predetermined  with  the  same 
nicety  as  by  calculating  the  percentage  of  alcohol  in  the  alcoholic 
liquid  by  the  above  formula,  The  following  may  serve  as  ex- 
amples of  such  receipts  : — 

D.  Alcohol   of    50    per    cent.    Tr.    100   quarts,    water    600, 
vinegar  900. 

E.  Alcohol   of   90   per   cent.    Tr.    100   quarts,   water    1200, 
vinegar  300. 

F.  Alcohol   of   90   per   cent.    Tr.    100   quarts,   water    1350, 
vinegar  175,  beer  175. 

G.  Alcohol   of   90   per   cent.    Tr.   100   quarts,   water   1400, 
vinegar  300,  beer  100. 

H.  Alcohol  of  80  per  cent,  Tr.  100  quarts,  water  850, 
beer  750. 

I.  Alcohol  of  50  per  cent,  Tr.  100  quarts,  water  100,  beer 
100. 

The  mixtures  A,  B,  and  C  are  only  given  as  examples  of  how 
alcoholic  liquids  which  yield  vinegar  containing  the  desired  per- 
centage of  acetic  acid  are  prepared  according  to  receipts.  Though 
it  may  be  very  convenient  for  the  manufacturer  to  work  according 
to  such  receipts  as  are  given  under  D  to  I,  their  use  without  a 
previous  examination  cannot  be  recommended.  It  is  far  better 
for  the  manufacturer  to  prepare  the  alcoholic  liquid  according  to 
a  receipt  of  his  own  and  not  shrink  from  the  slight  labor  it  in- 
volves ;  he  has  then  at  least  the  assurance  of  obtaining  vinegar 
with  exactly  the  percentage  of  acetic  acid  desired,  and  is  in  the 
position  to  obtain  an  accurate  view  of  the  entire  process  of  the 
operation. 

Spirits  of  wine  being  the  initial  point  in  the  preparation  of 
alcoholic  liquid,  it  is  necessary  to  know  exactly  the  per  cent,  by 
weight  of  alcohol  it  contains.  With  the  assistance  of  the  tables 
at  the  end  of  this  volume,  the  content  of  alcohol  in  spirits  of  wine 
can  be  readily  determined  by  means  of  the  alcoholometer  and 
thermometer. 

With  the  temperature  of  the  spirits  of  wine  at  exactly  59°  F., 


PKEPAKATION   OF   THE   ALCOHOLIC   LIQUID.  Ill 

it  suffices  to  determine  its  specific  gravity  by  testing  with  an  areo- 
meter and  to  find  the  indicated  figure  in  Table  I.  (Hehner's 
alcohol  table).  The  figure  in  the  next  horizontal  column  gives 
the  per  cent,  by  weight  and  the  next  the  per  cent,  by  volume  of 
alcohol  contained  in  the  spirits  of  wine  examined.  Tables  II., 
III.,  and  IV.  give  data  relating  to  the  proportion  between  the 
specific  gravity,  and  per  cent,  by  weight  and  volume  of  spirits  of 
wine  of  various  concentration  as  well  as  the  decrease  in  volume 
by  mixing  with  water.  Table  V.  shows  the  relation  between  the 
statements  of  Tralles's  alcoholometer  and  a  few  others  used  in 
different  places. 

The  specific  gravity  as  well  as  the  volume  of  spirits  of  wine 
varies  with  the  temperature,  and  the  statements  of  the  areometer 
for  temperatures  above  the  normal  of  59°  F.  require  a  corre- 
sponding correction,  the  execution  of  which  is  simplified  by  the 
use  of  Tables  VI.  and  VII.  It  being  desirable,  especially 
during  the  cold  season  of  the  year,  to  raise  the  temperature  of 
the  spirits  of  wine  by  mixing  with  water,  Table  VIII.  shows 
how  much  water  has  to  be  added  in  order  to  obtain  from  100 
liters  (105.6  quarts)  of  spirits  of  wine  of  known  strength 
whiskey  of  any  desired  concentration. 

In  order  to  know  exactly  the  yield  of  acetic  acid  which  is  ob- 
tained from  a  given  quantity  of  alcohol,  the  acetic  acid  con- 
tained in  the  vinegar  added  must  necessarily  be  taken  into  ac- 
count as  well  as  the  alcohol  in  the  beer,  which  is  of  course 
converted  into  acetic  acid.  Ifc  is  best  to  make  the  content  of 
alcohol  in  the  alcoholic  liquid  so  that  it  produces  vinegar  whose 
strength  corresponds  with  that  of  the  vinegar  added.  If,  for  in- 
stance, vinegar  with  7  per  cent,  of  acetic  acid  is  used,  alcohol  of 
7.6  to  7.7  per  cent,  by  weight  would  have  to  be  employed  accord- 
ing to  the  table  on  p.  108.  The  following  compilation  shows  the 
manner  of  preparing  alcoholic  liquid  according  to  rational  prin- 
ciples. 

Suppose  vinegar  with  7  per  cent,  acetic  acid  is  to  be  prepared. 
There  would  be  required — 

Spirits  of  wine  of  7.6  to  7.7  per  cent,  by  weight  100  liters  (105.6  quarts). 
Vinegar  with  7  per  cent,  of  acetic  acid  .  .  10  "  (  10.56  "  ) 
Beer  30  "  (  10.56  "  ) 


112  VINEGAR,    CIDER,    AND   FRUIT- WINES. 

Suppose  the  beer  contains,  for  instance,  exactly  3  per  cent,  by 
weight  of  alcohol,  hence  300  grammes  (10.58  ounces)  in  10  liters 
(10.56  quarts).  According  to  this,  a  result  of  120  liters  (126.78 
quarts)  of  vinegar  with  exactly  7  per  cent,  of  acetic  acid  could 
not  be  expected,  since  10  liters  (10.56  quarts)  of  the  alcoholic 
liquid  do  not  contain,  as  should  be  the  case,  760  to  770  grammes 
(26.82  to  27.18  ounces)  of  alcohol,  but  only  300  grammes  (10.58 
ounces).  Hence  actually  to  obtain  vinegar  with  7  per  cent,  of 
acetic  acid  a  sufficient  quantity  of  spirits  of  wine  will  have  to  be 
added  to  the  alcoholic  liquid  to  increase  the  content  of  alcohol  by 
460  to  470  grammes  (16.22  to  16.57  ounces),  or  spirit  of  wine 
with  more  than  7.6  to  7.7  per  cent,  by  weight  will  have  to  be 
used  from  the  start. 

It  will,  of  course,  be  understood,  that  the  data  given  above 
hold  good  only  for  the  quality  of  the  vinegar  in  reference  to  its 
content  of  acetic  acid,  the  factor  of  the  qualitative  yield  being 
left  out  of  consideration.  The  material  lost  in  the  course  of  pro- 
duction amounts,  as  previously  stated,  to  at  least  15  per  cent., 
and  in  determining  the  quality  of  the  vinegar  to  be  produced 
this  circumstance  has  to  be  taken  into  consideration. 

The  content  of  acetic  acid  in  vinegar  can  be  determined  with 
great  ease  and  accuracy  (up  to  T^  per  cent.)  by  volumetric 
analysis,  and  from  the  result  of  such  determination  it  can  be 
readily  seen  how  near  the  correct  proportion  of  alcohol  in  the 
alcoholic  liquid  has  been  attained,  and  should  the  latter  contain 
too  little  of  it,  it  can  be  readily  brought  up  to  the  determined  per- 
centage by  the  addition  of  some  strong  spirit  of  wine,  or,  if  too 
much,  by  the  addition  of  some  water. 

Constitution  of  the  Fundamental  Materials  used  in  the  Preparation 
of  Alcoholic  Liquids. 

Spirits  of  wine,  water,  vinegar,  and  in  most  cases  beer,  con- 
stitute the  fundamental  materials  for  the  preparation  of  alcoholic 
liquids. 

Any  kind  of  wholesome  drinking  water  is  suitable  for  the 
fabrication  of  vinegar ;  water  containing  a  large  amount  of  or- 
ganic substance  or  living  organisms  or  which  possesses  a  specific 


PREPARATION   OF   THE   ALCOHOLIC   LIQUID.  113 

taste  from  the  admixture  of  salts  should  not  be  used  under  any 
circumstances. 

Many  well-waters  are  very  hard,  i.  e.,  they  contain  a  compara- 
tively large  quantity  of  calcium  carbonate  in  solution.  If  such 
water  be  used  in  the  preparation  of  alcoholic  liquid,  the  calcium 
carbonate  is  decomposed  by  the  acetic  acid  and  the  vinegar  con- 
tains a  corresponding  quantity  of  calcium  acetate  in  solution. 
Other  well-waters  contain  a  large  quantity  of  gypsum  (calcium 
sulphate)  in  solution  ;  which  salt  is  not  changed  by  acetic  acid,  but 
remains  partially  dissolved  in  the  finished  vinegar. 

When  water  very  rich  in  gypsum  is  mixed  with  alcohol  the 
fluid  at  first  entirely  clear  becomes  in  a  short  time  opalescent  and 
finally  perceptibly  turbid.  After  long  standing  a  very  delicate 
white  sediment  separates  on  the  bottom  of  the  vessel,  the  fluid 
becoming  again  clear.  This  phenomenon  is  explained  by  the  fact 
that  gypsum  while  soluble  in  water  with  comparative  ease  is  next 
to  insoluble  in  a  fluid  containing  alcohol,  and  hence  gradually 
separates  in  the  form  of  minute  crystals. 

Water  containing  no  gypsum  but  much  calcium  carbonate 
shows  after  mixing  with  spirits  of  wine  a  similar  behavior ;  it  at 
first  becomes  turbid  and  again  clear  after  separating  a  delicate 
white  precipitate.  Calcium  carbonate  is  soluble  only  in  water 
containing  a  corresponding  quantity  of  carbonic  acid  ;  on  standing 
in  the  air  the  carbonic  acid  escapes  and  the  calcium  carbonate 
separates. 

This  behavior  of  wrater  when  mixed  with  alcohol  and  standing 
in  the  air  can  be  utilized  for  the  almost  complete  separation  of 
the  gypsum  and  calcium  carbonate.  Mixtures  of  water  and  alco- 
hol, in  the  proportion  the  alcoholic  liquids  are  to  have,  are  first 
prepared  and  the  fluid  stored  in  barrels  in  a  warm  apartment 
near  the  workroom.  The  mixtures  at  first  turbid  become  clear 
after  some  time  and  are  then  drawn  off  from  the  sediment  by 
means  of  a  rubber  hose.  A  comparative  examination  of  the 
water  and  the  mixtures  shows  that  the  latter  contain  only  very 
small  quantities  of  gypsum  and  calcium  carbonate  in  solution. 

River  water,  though  generally  soft,  i.  e.,  poor  in  the  above-men- 
tioned salts,  is  seldom  sufficiently  clear  to  be  used  without  previous 
filtration.    It  is  further  very  likely  that  the  small  worms,  known 
8 


114  VINEGAR,   CIDER,   AND   FRUIT- WINES. 

as  vinegar  eels,  which  frequently  become  very  annoying  in  vine- 
gar factories,  reach  the  alcoholic  liquid  through  the  use  of  river 
water,  and,  therefore,  the  use  of  well-water  wherever  possible  is 
recommended. 

The  constitution  of  the  spirits  of  wine  used  in  the  preparation 
of  the  alcoholic  liquids  is  of  great  importance,  the  bouquet  of 
the  vinegar  to  be  prepared  depending  on  it.  Commercial  spirits 
of  wine  always  contains  certain  foreign  bodies  known  as  "  fusel 
oils  ;"  they  have  a  very  intense  odor  and  can  only  be  removed  by 
careful  rectification.  For  the  vinegar  manufacturer  it  is  of  great- 
importance  to  know  the  behavior  of  spirits  of  wine  containing 
fusel  oil  when  converted  into  acetic  acid,  and  a  number  of  experi- 
ments with  different  varieties  (from  potatoes,  grain,  wine)  have 
shown  the  respective  vinegar  also  possessed  of  a  specific  odor, 
differing,  however,  from  that  of  the  original  fusel  oil  and  develop- 
ing by  storing  into  a  bouquet  of  a  peculiar  but  agreeable  scent. 
This  phenomenon  is  explained  by  the  fact  that  the  energetic 
oxidizing  process  which  takes  place  in  the  generators  extends  not 
only  to  the  alcohol  but  also  to  the  other  bodies  present,  and  the 
greater  portion  of  the  fusel  oils  is  thereby  converted  into  odori- 
ferous combinations  or  compound  ethers. 

By  treating  potato  fusel  oil  (amyl  alcohol)  with  sulphuric  acid 
and  an  acetate,  amyl  acetate  is  formed  which  in  a  diluted  state 
smells  like  jargonelle  pears  and  is  used  by  confectioners  under  the 
name  of  "  pear  essence"  for  flavoring  so-called  fruit  bonbons. 
The  same  process  would  seem  to  take  place  by  passing  spirits  of 
wine  containing  potato  fusel  oil  through  the  generators  ;  the  vine- 
gar prepared  from  such  spirits  of  wine  shows  an  agreeable  scent 
immediately  when  running  off  from  the  generators,  while  vinegar 
prepared  from  entirely  pure  spirits  of  wine  has  at  first  a  stupe- 
fying smell  and  acquires  a  harmonious  odor  only  by  long  storing. 

It  would,  therefore,  be  advisable  for  the  manufacturer  who 
works  with  potato  alcohol  not  to  use  the  highly  rectified  product, 
but  a  mixture  of  it  and  of  crude  spirits  containing  fusel  oil, 
the  vinegar  prepared  from  such  a  mixture  acquiring  a  more  agree- 
able odor  than  that  obtained  from  the  rectified  product.  How 
much  of  the  crude  spirits  has  to  be  used  can  only  be  determined 


WORK   IN   A  VINEGAR  FACTORY.  115 

by  experience,  but,  as  a  rule,  only  enough  should  be  taken  to  assure 
the  conversion  of  the  entire  quantity  of  amyl  alcohol  present. 

The  fuse),  oil  contained  in  spirits  of  wine  from  grain  consists 
largely  of  a  mixture  of  fatty  acids  and  offers  far  greater  resistance 
to  oxidation  in  the  generators  than  amyl  alcohol.  The  same  may 
be  said  of  renanthic  ether,  the  fusel  oil  of  brandy.  In  working 
with  alcoholic  liquid  prepared  with  a  large  quantity  of  grain 
spirits  containing  fusel  oil,  the  smell  of  unchanged  fusel  oil  is 
perceptible  in  the  vinegar  besides  the  odors  of  the  products  of 
its  decomposition.  With  the  use  of  small  quantities  of  grain  spirits 
containing  fusel  oil,  vinegar  possessing  a  more  agreeable  odor  than 
that  from  entirely  pure  spirits  is  obtained. 


CHAPTER  XII. 

EXECUTION  OF  THE   WORK   IN   A   VINEGAR   FACTORY. 

THE  factory  being  once  in  a  proper  state  of  working,  the  fur- 
ther execution  of  the  operation  is  very  simple;  a  previously 
determined  quantity  of  alcoholic  liquid  is  at  stated  intervals 
admitted  to  the  generators  and  the  vinegar  running  off  collected, 
\Vith  the  operation  running  a  normal  course,  attention  has  only 
to  be  paid  to  the  maintenance  of  the  correct  temperature  in  the 
workroom  and  in  the  generators ;  the  chemical  process  runs  its 
regular  course  without  further  assistance.  In  many  cases,  how- 
ever, deviations  from  the  regular  order  occur.  They  are  due  to 
external  influences,  such  as  changes  in  the  temperature  in  the 
interior  of  the  generators,  variations  in  the  composition  of  the 
alcoholic  liquid,  etc.,  and  will  be  discussed  in  a  special  chapter. 

The  capacity  of  a  factory  deperfds  on  the  number  of  generators 
in  operation.  A  regularly  working  generator  is  supposed  to  be 
capable  of  daily  converting  3  liters  (3.16  quarts)  of  absolute  alcohol, 
and  this  quantity  will  be  taken  as  the  basis  for  calculating  the 
execution  of  the  operation.  If,  for  instance,  vinegar  with  8  per 
cent,  of  acetic  acid  is  to  be  manufactured,  alcohol  of  8.8  per  cent, 
by  weight  has  to  be  used,  and  to  prepare  this,  3  liters  (3.10 


116  VINEGAR,   CIDER,    AXD    FRUIT- WINES. 

quarts)  of  100  per  cent,  alcohol  have  to  be  reduced  with  water, 
so  that,  according  to  Table  I.,  the  fluid  shows  a  specific  gravity 
of  0.9858  at  59°  F.  According  to  Table  III.,  8.98  liters  (9.48 
quarts)  of  water  have  to  be  added  to  every  liter  (1.05  quart)  of 
100  per  cent,  alcohol  to  obtain  spirits  of  wine  of  8.8  per  cent, 
by  weight;  hence  3  liters  (3.16  quarts)  have  to  be  compounded 
with  26.94  liters  (28.46  quarts)  of  water  (according  to  Table 
III.,  alcohol  with  90  per  cent,  by  volume  of  alcohol  contains 
11.80  per  cent,  by  volume  of  water,  80  per  cent,  alcohol  22.83, 
etc.,  which  has  to  be  taken  into  consideration  in  making  the 
dilution). 

According  to  Table  III.,  the  contraction  in  this  case  amounts 
to  0.799  part  by  volume  for  every  100  parts  by  volume  of  the 
fluid.  Hence  the  3  liters  (3.16  quarts)  of  100  per  cent,  alcohol 
yield,  when  diluted  to  spirits  of  wine  of  8.8  per  cent,  by  weight, 
26.94  +  3=29.94  liters  (31.62  quarts)  of  fluid.  Actually  the 
quantity  is  somewhat  smaller,  as  in  mixing  alcohol  with  water  a 
decrease  in  volume  takes  place.  If  the  alcoholic  liquid  is  to  con- 
tain 10  per  cent,  each  of  vinegar  and  beer,  the  quantity  of  fluid  is 
as  follows  : — 

Dilute  spirits  of  wine  .  .  .  29.94  liters  (31.62  quarts) 
Vinegar  with  8  per  cent,  acetic  acid  2.994  "  (  3. 162  "  ) 
Beer 2.994  "  (  3.162  "  ) 

35.928     "     (37.944      "    ) 

Hence  the  quantity  to  be  worked  in  a  generator  in  the  course 
of  a  day  amounts  to  35.928  liters  (37.944  quarts),  or  taking  into 
account  the  alcohol  (about  90  grammes  or  3.17  ozs.)  contained  in 
the  beer,  to  about  36  liters  (38  quarts).  And  this  quantity  has 
in  a  corresponding  manner  to  be  divided  among  the  separate 
affusions,  so  that  in  a  working  time  of  1 5  hours  an  affusion  of 
2.4  liters  (2.53  quarts)  would  have  to  be  made  every  hour.  How- 
ever, by  this  method,  too  much  alcohol  would  be  lost  by  evapora- 
tion, on  the  one  hand,  and,  on  the  other,  the  generators  would  work 
comparatively  slowly,  since  it  is  well  known  that  the  conversion  into 
acetic  acid  is  effected  with  greater  rapidity  when  the  alcoholic 
liquid  contains  less  alcohol.  Hence  it  is  recommended  to  use  in 
the  commencement  a  fluid  which  contains  only  about  one-half  or 
two-thirds  of  the  total  quantity  of  alcohol  and  to  add  a  corre- 


WORK    IN    A    VINEGAR   FACTORY.  117 

spending  quantity  of  strong  spirits  of  wine  to  every  fresh  affu- 
sion. 

As  soon  as  all  the  alcohol  is  converted  into  acetic  acid,  the 
vinegar  ferment,  as  previously  mentioned,  commences  with  great 
energy  to  oxidize  the  latter  to  carbonic  acid  and  water,  and  hence 
the  amount  of  spirits  of  wine  added  to  the  alcoholic  liquid  must 
be  so  large  that  the  vinegar  running  off  always  contains  a  minute 
quantity  of  it. 

Much  has  been  written  about  this  gradual  strengthening  of  the 
alcoholic  liquid  with  alcohol,  and  explicit  directions  are  given 
as  to  the  original  composition  of  the  alcoholic  liquid  as  well  as  to 
how  much,  how  often,  and  when  the  alcohol  is  to  be  added. 
These  directions  may  have  proved  useful  in  many  cases,  but  local 
conditions  exert  too  great  an  influence  upon  the  process  of  fabri- 
cation for  them  to  be  of  general  value.  Besides  the  content  of 
alcohol  in  the  alcoholic  liquid,  the  size  of  the  generators,  the 
strength  of  the  draught  in  them,  the  temperature  prevailing  in 
the  workroom  and  in  the  interior  of  the  generators,  are  factors 
which  must  be  taken  into  consideration  in  determining  on  a  plan 
of  operation  actually  adapted  to  existing  conditions. 

The  size  of  the  generators  is,  of  course,  fixed  once  for  all ;  in 
a  proper  state  of  working  the  strength  of  the  current  of  air  must 
be  so  regulated  that  the  temperature  in  the  interior  of  the  gene- 
rators is  only  about  45°  F.  higher  than  that  of  the  workroom,  which 
is  readily  accomplished  with  a  suitable  central  heating  apparatus. 
There  still  remains  the  determination  of  the  most  favorable  pro- 
portion of  the  content  of  alcohol  in  the  alcoholic  liquid  to  be  first 
used  and  its  gradual  strengthening  by  the  addition  of  spirits  of 
wine,  which  can  only  be  effected  by  a  chemical  examination  of 
the  fluid  running  off  from  the  generators. 

This  chemical  examination  is  restricted  to  the  accurate  deter- 
mination of  the  quantity  of  acetic  acid  in  the  fluid  and  to  that  of 
the  alcohol  to  0.1  per  cent.  The  determination  of  the  acetic  acid 
is  effected  by  volumetric  analysis,  and  with  some  experience  re- 
quires four  to  five  minutes  for  its  execution  ;  for  the  determina- 
tion of  the  alcohol  an  examination  with  the  ebullioscope  suffices, 
which  can  also  be  accomplished  in  four  to  five  minutes.*  These 

*  The  manner  of  executing  these  determinations  will  be  described  later  on. 


118  VINEGAR,   CID1 

two  determinations,  which  every  vinegar  manufacturer  should  be 
able  to  make,  are  the  only  means  of  obtaining  an  accurate  con- 
trol of  the  working  of  the  factory,  and  also  serve,  of  course,  for 
settling  the  exact  plan  of  operation  from  the  start. 

If,  with  reference  to  the  example  given  above,  vinegar  with  8 
per  cent,  of  acetic  acid  is  to  be  prepared,  the  alcoholic  liquid 
must  contain  a  total  of  8.8  per  cent,  by  weight  of  alcohol.  Now 
if  the  fabrication  is  commenced  with  an  alcoholic  liquid  contain- 
ing the  total  quantity  of  water,  vinegar,  and  beer,  but,  for  in- 
stance, only  5  per  cent,  by  weight  of  alcohol,  the  following 
method  will  have  to  be  pursued  in  order  to  accurately  determine 
when  and  how  much  alcohol  has  to  be  added. 

The  first  portion  of  the  alcoholic  liquid  being  poured  into  the 
generator,  the  fluid  running  off  is  tested  as  to  its  content  of  acetic 
acid  and  alcohol,  the  test  being  repeated  after  the  second  and  each 
successive  pouring.  Each  test  must  show  an  increase  in  the  con- 
tent of  acetic  acid  and  a  decrease  in  that  of  alcohol,  and  the  latter 
must  finally  have  diminished  so  far  that  a  new  addition  of  alcohol 
seems  to  be  in  order.  If  the  test  after  the  third  pouring  shows 
the  fluid  to  contain  only  0.3  to  0.4  per  cent,  of  alcohol,  this 
quantity  would  be  quickly  and  completely  oxidized  in  the  fourth 
pouring,  and  a  certain  quantity  of  acetic  acid  be  at  the  same  time 
destroyed.  Hence  it  is  necessary  to  add,  for  instance,  2  per  cent, 
by  weight  of  alcohol  to  the  alcoholic  liquid  before  the  fourth 
pouring.  When  this  2  +  0.3  or  2-f  0.4  per  cent,  of  alcohol,  which 
the  alcoholic  liquid  now  contains,  is  again  reduced  after  the  sixth 
or  seventh  pouring  to  0.3  or  0.4  per  cent,,  the  last  addition  of 
1.8  per  cent,  of  alcohol  is  made,  the  total  quantity  of  alcohol, 
5  +  24-1.8  =  8.8  per  cent,  having  now  been  used. 

When,  after  a  certain  number  of  pourings,  a  test  of  the  fluid 
running  off  shows  a  content  of  8  per  cent,  of  acetic  acid  and  only 
0.1  or  0.2  per  cent,  of  alcohol  (a  small  remnant  of  alcohol  should 
always  be  present)  the  process  is  considered  as  finished,  and  a 
further  pouring  into  the  generator  would  not  only  be  useless  labor, 
but  contrary  to  the  end  in  view,  since,  after  the  complete  oxida- 
tion of  the  last  remnants  of  alcohol,  that  of  acetic  acid  would 
immediately  commence,  and  weaker  vinegar  would  be  obtained 
after  each  pouring. 


WORK    IX   A   VINEGAR   FACTORY.  119 

If  a  generator  works  up  the  quantity  of  alcoholic  liquid  in- 
tended for  12  or  15  hours  in  10  or  12  hours,  it  is  more  proper, 
on  account  of  the  diminished  loss  by  evaporation,  to  induce  slower 
work  by  decreasing  the  draught  of  air  in  order  to  maintain  the 
rule  that  a  generator  has  to  work  up  3  liters  (3.16  quarts)  of 
absolute  alcohol  in  the  working  time  of  a  day. 

After  controlling  for  several  days  the  work  of  a  generator,  by 
examining  the  products  as  to  their  contents  of  acetic  acid  and 
alcohol,  the  plan  of  operation  resolves  itself  from  the  results  of 
these  tests,  since  it  is  then  accurately  known  after  how  many 
pourings  of  an  alcoholic  liquid  of  known  composition  an  addition 
of  alcohol  is  required ;  further,  after  how  many  pourings  a  finished 
product  is  present,  so  that  directions  for  the  progress  of  the  opera- 
tion can  be  given  to  the  workmen  according  to  time  and  quantities. 
The  normal  working  of  the  generators  can  always  be  controlled 
by  from  time  to  time  repeating  the  test  of  the  products. 

Now,  suppose  the  work  in  a  newly  arranged  factory,  having 
reached  the  point  at  which  acidulation  is  complete,  the  actual 
fabrication,  according  to  the  old  method,  will  be  gradually  com- 
menced by  pouring  in  alcoholic  liquid  of  corresponding  concen- 
tration. 

The  shavings  in  the  generator  having  been  saturated  with 
acidulating  vinegar,  the  latter  is  partially  replaced  by  the  fluid 
poured  in,  and  as  much  as  is  expelled  runs  off.  If  the  generator 
should  at  once  commence  to  work  regularly  the  temperature  in 
its  interior  would  be  observed  to  rise,  though  it  would  at  first  be 
impossible  to  establish  a  change  in  the  composition  of  the  fluid 
running  off.  Slight  variations  in  the  content  of  acetic  acid  and 
a  small  percentage  of  alcohol  could  be  determined  in  the  fluid 
only  after  the  acidulating  vinegar  originally  present  has  been 
entirely  expelled  by  a  series  of  pourings. 

With  the  progress  in  the  fabrication  of  vinegar,  it  became 
customary  to  produce  the  strongest  vinegar  possible,  the  so-called 
triple  vinegar,  with  about  12  per  cent,  of  acetic  acid.  On  account 
of  its  greater  commercial  value,  this  article  could  be  sent  great 
distances,  the  consumer  reducing  it  to  a  weaker  product  by  the 
addition  of  water. 

To  prepare  directly  vinegar  with  such  a  high  percentage  of 


120  VINEGAR,   CIDER,    AND   FRUIT-WINES. 

acetic  acid,  it  would,  however,  be  necessary  to  acidulate  all  the 
generators  with  vinegar  of  the  same  strength,  and  to  use  alcoholic 
liquid  very  rich  in  alcohol.  By  this  method  the  losses  of  alcohol 
by  evaporation,  and  also  of  acetic  acid,  would,  however,  be  so  great 
as  to  make  the  product  too  expensive.  Furthermore,  the  work 
would  require  most  careful  and  constant  attention  on  account  of 
the  difficulty  with  which  oxidation  takes  place  in  alcoholic  liquid 
containing  much  acetic  acid,  and  it  might  only  too  readily  happen 
that  the  generators  suddenly  worked  weaker,  i.  e.,  that  the  content 
of  acetic  acid  in  the  vinegar  running  off  would  decrease,  and  the 
quantity  of  alcohol  remaining  unchanged  correspondingly  increase. 

On  account  of  these  difficulties,  it  has  become  customary  to 
charge  the  greater  number  of  generators  with  alcoholic  liquid 
yielding  the  so-called  double  vinegar  with  about  8  per  cent,  of 
acetic  acid,  and  to  work  this  vinegar  with  the  addition  of  the 
required  quantity  of  strong  spirits  of  wine  in  a  number  of  gen- 
erators, which,  of  course,  must  be  acidulated  with  12  per  cent, 
vinegar. 

It  will  be  readily  understood  that  the  employment  of  this 
method  is  not  only  advantageous  for  the  production  of  vinegar 
with  the  highest  attainable  content  of  acetic  acid,  but  also  for 
general  purposes.  Passing  the  alcoholic  liquid  but  once  through 
the  generators  does  not  suffice,  even  for  vinegar  with  only  5  to 
6  per  cent,  of  acetic  acid,  an  examination  always  showing  a  con- 
siderable quantity,  J  per  cent,  and  more,  of  unconverted  alcohol 
in  the  vinegar  running  off.  The  conversion  of  alcoholic  liquid 
with  a  small  content  of  alcohol  into  vinegar  by  one  pouring  can, 
to  be  sure,  be  accomplished,  but  it  necessitates  the  use  of  very 
tall  generators  and  a  constant  struggle  with  difficulties  on  account 
of  the  irregular  draught  of  air,  caused  by  the  packing  together  of 
the  shavings. 

Group-System. 

Theoretically,  as  well  as  practically,  the  group-system  may  be 
considered  as  the  perfection  of  the  quick  process.  The  principle 
of  the  operation  consists  in  the  division  of  the  generators  into 
two  or  three  groups,  each  group  preparing  vinegar  of  determined 
strength.  In  factories  which  do  not  produce  vinegar  of  the 


WORK    IN    A    VINEGAR   FACTORY.  121 

greatest  attainable  strength  (12  per  cent,  vinegar),  but  only 
double  vinegar  with  about  8  per  cent,  of  acetic  acid,  two  groups 
might  suffice ;  the  manufacture  of  a  product  of  the  greatest  at- 
tainable strength  being,  however,  advisable  in  most  cases,  it  is 
recommended  to  arrange  the  factory  for  continuous  work  with 
three  groups  of  generators. 

For  this  purpose  the  number  of  generators  must  be  divisible 
by  three;  hence  3,  6,  9,  12,  etc.,  generators  have  to  be  provided, 
of  which  1,  2,  3,  4,  etc.,  form  one  group,  so  that,  for  instance,  in 
a  factory  working  with  24  generators  each  group  consists  of  8. 
By  designating  the  generators  belonging  to  one  group  with  the 
same  number,  we  have  groups  I,  II,  and  III,  and  in  acidulating 
and  operating  the  generators  belonging  to  one  group  are  treated 
in  the  same  manner. 

For  the  preparation  of  the  strongest  vinegar  (12  per  cent.)  the 
generators  belonging  to  group  I  can,  for  instance,  be  acidulated 
with  vinegar  of  6  per  cent,  acetic  acid,  those  of  group  II  with  9 
per  cent,  vinegar,  and  those  of  group  III  with  12  per  cent, 
vinegar.  The  process  of  operation  is  then  as  follows : — 

Group  I.  The  generators  belonging  to  this  group  are  charged 
Avith  an  alcoholic  liquid  which  yields  vinegar  with  a  con- 
tent of  6  per  cent,  acetic  acid,  and  the  fluid  running  off  is 
poured  back  into  the  generators  until  a  test  shows  the 
alcohol,  with  the  exception  of  a  small  remnant,  to  have 
been  converted  into  acetic  acid.  To  this  vinegar  is  then 
added  sufficient  strong  alcohol  to  form  an  alcoholic  liquid 
which  will  yield  9  per  cent,  vinegar. 

Group  II.  The  alcoholic  liquid  for  9  per  cent,  vinegar  is 
poured  into  the  generators  belonging  to  group  II,  the 
pourings  being  repeated  until  all  but  a  very  small  quantity 
of  the  alcohol  is  oxidized.  The  vinegar  running  off  is 
again  compounded  with  sufficient  alcohol  to  form  alcoholic 
liquid  for  12  per  cent,  vinegar  and  is  brought  into 
Group  III.  The  pourings  are  here  repeated  until  the  oxidation 
of  the  alcohol  is  nearly  complete ;  the  finished  product  is 
then  subjected  to  storing  or  clarification. 

As  will  be  seen  from  the  above,  in  operating  according  to  the 
group  system  the  entire  factory  is,  so  to  say,  divided  into  three 


122  VINEGAR,   CIDER,    AND    FRUIT-WINES. 

factories,  I,  II,  and  III,  of  which  I  produces  vinegar  of  6  per 
cent.,  II  vinegar  of  9  per  cent.,  and  III  vinegar  of  12  per  cent. ; 
the  product  of  I,  after  having  been  converted  by  a  suitable  addi- 
tion of  alcohol  into  alcoholic  liquid  adapted  for  the  preparation 
of  9  per  cent,  vinegar,  is  directly  used  for  charging  the  generators 
of  group  II  and  that  of  II  for  charging  III. 

The  generators  belonging  to  one  group  having  been  acidulated 
with  vinegar  of  the  same  strength,  the  fluid  running  off  from  one 
generator  need  not  necessarily  be  returned  to  it.  The  work  can, 
therefore,  be  simplified  by  conducting  the  fluid  running  off  from 
all  the  generators  by  means  of  a  suitable  pipe-system  into  a 
common  receiver  instead  of  allowing  the  fluid,  which  has  passed 
through  a  generator,  to  collect  under  a  lath-bottom  and  then 
drawing  it  off  and  returning  it  to  the  same  generator.  If,  for 
instance,  8  generators  belong  to  one  group  and  3  liters  (3.16 
quarts)  have  at  the  same  time  been  poured  into  each,  the  passage 
of  the  liquid  through  all  the  generators  will  be  shown  by  a 
measuring  scale  placed  in  the  common  receiver,  indicating  that 
the  latter  contains  3x8=24  liters  (25.36  quarts). 

The  samples  for  determining  the  content  of  acetic  acid  and 
alcohol  are  taken  from  the  common  receiver,  and  the  latter  also 
serves  for  the  conversion  of  the  vinegar,  after  it  has  acquired  the 
percentage  of  acid  attainable  in  that  group,  into  stronger  alcoholic 
liquid  by  the  addition  of  alcohol.  In  order  to  effect  an  intimate 
mixture  and  at  the  same  time  prevent  the  vinegar  ferment  float- 
ing in  the  fluid  from  suffering  injury  by  coming  in  contact  with 
the  highly  concentrated  spirits  of  wine,  the  required  quantity  of 
the  latter  is  introduced  in  a  thin  jet  and  with  constant  stirring. 

In  many  factories  it  is  customary  from  time  to  time  to  alter- 
nate with  the  pourings  in  the  groups  or  "to  cross  the  generators.7' 
By  this  "  crossing"  the  alcoholic  liquid,  which,  according  to  the 
above  method,  would,  for  instance,  pass  from  group  II  to  group 
III,  is  poured  into  group  I,  so  that  after  some  time  the  gene- 
rators of  this  group  are  converted  into  generators  of  group  III 
(with  12  per  cent,  acid),  and  group  III  becomes  group  I,  it  now 
containing  the  weakest  alcoholic  liquid  (with  6  per  cent.  acid). 
Crossing,  however,  cannot  be  recommended,  because  a  sudden 
change  in  the  constitution  of  the  nourishing  fluid  always  exerts 


WORK    IN    A    VINEGAR   FACTORY.  123 

an  injurious  influence  upon  the  augmentation  of  the  vinegar 
ferment. 

Recourse  to  crossing  is  most  frequently  had  for  the  purpose  of 
"  strengthening'7  the  vinegar  ferment  by  working  weaker  alco- 
holic liquid  in  the  generators  of  one  group — generally  that  which 
yields  the  strongest  vinegar — when  their  activity  diminishes. 
This  strengthening  of  the  ferment  can,  however,  be  effected  in  a 
more  simple  and  suitable  manner  by  diminishing  the  quantity  of 
alcoholic  liquid  poured  in  at  one  time  and  by  increasing  the 
draught  of  air,  and  the  consequent  change  of  temperature  in  the 
generators,  so  that  the  principal  reasons  for  "  crossing  the  gene- 
rators" (which  many  manufacturers  consider  indispensable)  have 
no  force. 


Group-System  in  Factories  with  Automatic  Arrangements. 

In  a  factory  so  arranged  that  the  pourings  are  at  stated  inter- 
vals effected  by  an  automatic  contrivance,  the  group  system  as 
described  on  p.  93  et  seq.  should  be  used.  The  operation  of 
such  a  factory  is  very  simple.  As  seen  from  the  description  of 
the  arrangement,  the  generators  are  divided  into  three  groups, 
I,  II,  and  III.  Besides  the  generators  each  group  must  be 
provided  with  a  reservoir,  which  may  be  designated  V,  and  a 
collecting  vessel  8.  (The  other  component  parts,  distributing 
arrangements,  and  conduits  can  here  be  left  out  of  consideration.) 

For  the  production  of  12  per  cent,  vinegar  in  such  a  factory  it 
is  best  so  to  prepare  the  alcoholic  liquid  for  the  several  groups 
that 

Group  I  contains  alcoholic 

liquid  with 6  p.  c.  acetic  acid  and  6.5  to  6.6  p.  c.  alcohol. 

Group  II  contains  alcoholic 

liquid  with      ....     9     "  "  +3.2  to  3.3 

Group  III  contains  alco- 
holic liquid  with       .     .  12     "  +3.2  to  3.3 

Group  I  having  been  acidulated  with  6  per  cent,  vinegar, 
group  II  with  9  per  cent,  vinegar,  and  group  III  with  12  per 
cent,  vinegar,  the  fluid  running  off  from  group  I,  after  being 
compounded  with  3.2  to  3.3  per  cent,  of  alcohol,  is  used  in  group 


124  VINEGAR,    CIDER,    AND   FRUIT- WINES. 

II  as  alcoholic  liquid  for  9  per  cent,  vinegar  and  yields  9  per 
cent,  vinegar,  which  after  being  again  compounded  with  3.2  to 
3.3  per  cent,  of  alcohol  yields  12  per  cent,  vinegar  after  having 
passed  through  group  III. 

The  uninterrupted  working  of  the  generators  constituting  one 
of  the  principal  advantages  of  the  automatic  system,  it  is  advisable 
to  regulate  the  automatic  contrivance  so  that  but  a  small  quantity 
of  alcoholic  liquid  be  at  one  time  poured  out,  and  to  fix  the 
intervals  between  two  pourings  so  that  the  second  pouring  takes 
pi  aw  after  about  one-half  of  the  first  has  run  off.  Under  these 
conditions  there  will  be  in  the  lower  half  of  the  generator  an  alco- 
holic liquid  in  which  the  alcohol  is  nearly  as  much  oxidized  as  it 
can  be  by  one  passage  through  the  generator,  while  in  the  upper 
half  will  be  fresh  alcoholic  liquid  in  which  oxidation  is  continued 
without  interruption.  A  further  advantage  obtained  by  this  is 
that  a  generator  will  yield  quantitatively  more  than  one  working 
only  15  to  16  hours;  further,  the  conditions  of  temperature  in 
the  interior  of  the  generator  remain  always  the  same  and  the  fer- 
ment constantly  finds  nourishment. 

The  alcoholic  liquid  for  group  I  is  pumped  into  the  reservoir 
I7,,  and  passes  through  the  generators  of  group  I  into  the  col- 
lecting vessel  $,.  All  the  alcoholic  liquid  having  run  off  from  Vv 
the  fluid  collected  in  8V  after  having  been  tested  as  to  its  content 
of  acetic  acid,  is  for  the  second  time  pumped  into  Vl  and  passes 
again  through  the  generators  of  group  I.  The  automatic  con- 
trivance is  so  regulated  that  the  alcoholic  liquid,  after  being 
twice  poured  in,  contains  but  a  very  small  remnant  of  alcohol. 

To  the  vinegar  of  6  per  cent,  collected  in  Sl  is  now  added  3.2 
to  3.3  per  cent,  by  weight  of  alcohol,  best  in  the  form  of  80  to  90 
.per  cent,  spirits  of  wine.  The  resulting  stronger  alcoholic  liquid 
is  at  once  pumped  into  Vv  and  passing  through  the  generators  of 
group  II  reaches  the  collecting  vessel  8r  It  is  then  tested, 
pumpod  back  into  Vv  and  again  collected  in  S2.  If  it  now 
shows  the  required  strength,  it  is  mixed  with  the  second  portion 
of  3.2  to  3.3  per  cent,  by  weight  of  alcohol  and  is  pumped  into 
Trs,  and  after  passing  twice  through  the  generators  collects  as  fin- 
ished vinegar  in  $3. 

It  will  be  seen  from  the  above  description  of  the  process  that  in 


FABRICATION   OF   VINEGAR.  12o 

making  the  tests  the  product  of  all  the  generators  of  one  group 
is  treated  as  a  whole.  A  disturbance  may,  however,  occur  in 
either  one  of  the  generators,  and  it  would  take  considerable  time 
before  its  existence  would  be  detected  by  a  change  in  the  consti- 
tution of  the  entire  product.  The  thermometer  with  which  each 
generator  is  provided  is,  however,  a  reliable  guide  as  to  the  ac- 
tivity of  the  latter,  and  if  it  shows  in  one  of  them  a  temperature 
varying  37°  to  39°  F.  from  that  prevailing  in  the  others,  it  is  a 
sure  sign  of  the  respective  generator  not  working  in  the  same 
manner  as  the  others,  and  the  product  running  off'  from  it  should 
be  tested  by  itself  as  to  its  content  of  acetic  acid  and  alcohol. 

Generally  it  will  contain  either  no  alcohol  or  very  much  of,  it. 
In  the  first  case,  the  temperature  of  the  respective  generator  is 
higher  than  that  prevailing  in  the  others,  and  its  activity  has  to  be 
moderated  by  decreasing  the  admission  of  air ;  in  the  other  case, 
the  generator  works  too  sluggishly,  and  the  difference  is  sought 
to  be  equalized  by  increasing  the  current  of  air  or  giving  a  few 
pourings  of  somewhat  warmer  alcoholic  liquid.  With  a  good 
heating  apparatus  producing  a  uniform  temperature  in  the  work- 
room such  disturbances  will,  however,  but  seldom  happen,  and 
by  the  use  of  the  above  means  the  normal  working  of  the  gene- 
rators can  be  restored. 


CHAPTER   XIII. 

DISTURBING   INFLUENCES   IN   THE    FABRICATION   OF    VINEGAR. 

IN  no  other  industry  based  upon  the  process  of  fermentation 
are  irregularities  and  disturbances  of  such  frequent  occurrence  as 
in  the  fabrication  of  vinegar.  Besides  the  nourishing  substances 
dissolved  in  the  fluid  and  free  oxygen,  the  vinegar  ferment  re- 
quires a  certain  temperature  for  its  abundant  augmentation,  by 
which  alone  large  quantities  of  alcohol  can  in  a  short  time  be 
converted  into  acetic  acid.  By  exercising  the  necessary  care  for 
the  fulfilment  of  these  conditions  serious  disturbances  can  be 


126  VINEGAR,   CIDER,   AND   FRUIT- WINES. 

entirely  avoided  and  the  slighter  ones  due  to  insufficient  acetous 
fermentation  of  the  ferment  readily  removed. 

As  regards  the  nourishing  substances  of  the  ferment,  irregu- 
larities can  actually  occur  only  in  working  continuously  with  an 
alcoholic  liquid  composed  exclusively  of  water  and  alcohol.  In 
such  alcoholic  liquid  the  nitrogenous  substances  necessary  for  the 
nourishment  of  the  ferment  are  wanting,  nor  are  the  phosphates 
present  in  sufficient  quantity.  The  consequences  are  the  same  as 
observed  in  every  insufficiently  nourished  fermenting  organism  : 
the  fermenting  activity  suddenly  diminishes,  augmentation  pro- 
ceeds sluggishly  and  ceases  entirely  if  abundant  nourishment  is 
not  introduced.  Hence  it  may  happen  that  from  a  generator 
containing  alcoholic  liquid  composed  only  of  water,  alcohol,  and 
vinegar,  the  greater  portion  of  the  alcohol  suddenly  runs  off'  un- 
changed, the  temperature  in  the  interior  of  the  generator  at  the 
same  time  falling  and  the  draught  of  air  ceasing  soon  afterwards. 
When  these  phenomena  appear  it  should  first  be  ascertained 
whether  the  disturbance  is  not  due  to  too  slight  a  current  of  air. 
For  this  purpose  the  draught-holes  are  entirely  opened,  and  if 
the  temperature  rises  the  generator  gradually  resumes  its  normal 
working.  If,  however,  no  improvement  is  observed,  the  disturb- 
ance is  due  to  defective  nourishment,  and  the  composition  of  the 
alcoholic  liquid  has  to  be  changed,  which  is  best  effected  by  the 
addition  of  a  few  per  cent,  of  beer  or  of  fermented  alcoholic 
mash,  both  containing  a  sufficient  quantity  of  phosphates  and 
albuminous  substances.  The  use  of  sweet  beer  wort  or  of  malt 
extract  has  also  been  highly  recommended  for  "strengthening 
weak-working  generators."  These  substances  also  furnish  albu- 
minous bodies  and  phosphates  to  the  alcoholic  liquid ;  they  also 
contain,  however,  maltose  and  dextrin,  and  as  it  has  not  yet  been 
ascertained  whether  the  latter  and  the  carbohydrates  in  general 
can  be  consumed  and  digested  by  the  ferment,  they  possibly  may 
pass  unchanged  into  the  vinegar.  Honey  and  glucose  are  also 
sometimes  used  for  strengthening  purposes,  but  while  the  former 
might  be  useful  on  account  of  the  abundance  of  salts  and  nitro- 
genous substances  it  contains,  no  substances  of  any  value  to  the 
ferment  are  present  in  the  latter.  At  any  rate  the  addition  of 
beer,  mash,  or  malt  extract  is  to  be  preferred. 


FABRICATION   OF   VINEGAR.  127 

An  addition  of  phosphates  to  the  alcoholic  liquid  is  also  said  to 
produce  a  favorable  effect  upon  the  augmentation  of  the  ferment. 
Commercial  solid  phosphoric  acid  is  dissolved  in  water  and  the 
solution  neutralized  with  potassium,  a  solution  of  potassium  phos- 
phate being  obtained  in  this  manner.  The  vinegar  ferment  being 
very  sensitive  towards  this  salt  a  very  small  quantity  of  the 
solution,  about  YTOIHJ  of  the  weight  of  the  alcoholic  fluid,  may  be 
added.  The  experiment  must,  however,  be  made  very  cautiously 
and  the  effect  upon  the  working  of  the  generator  carefully  noted. 

Disturbances  referable  to  the  Quantity  of  newly  formed  Acetic  Acid. 

With  a  proper  state  of  working  the  alcoholic  liquid  brought 
into  the  generators  should  be  completely  converted  into  vinegar, 
and,  theoretically,  the  product  running  off  show  the  same  strength 
as  the  vinegar  used  for  acidtilation.  Actually,  there  are,  however, 
slight  variations  not  exceeding  a  few  tenths  of  one  per  cent. 
Should  greater  differences  appear  a  disturbance  actually  exists 
and  may  show  itself  in  various  ways :  the  generator  may  work 
too  feebly  or  too  vigorously.  In  the  first  case  the  content  of  acetic 
acid  in  the  fluid  running  off  decreases  considerably,  while  that  of 
alcohol  increases.  The  process  of  the  formation  of  vinegar  is,  so 
to  say,  only  half  carried  through,  a  great  portion  of  the  alcohol 
being  converted,  not  into  acetic  acid,  but  into  aldehyde.  The 
greater  portion  of  this  combination  is  lost  to  the  manufacturer  on 
account  of  its  low  boiling  point  (71.6°  F.),  it  escaping  in  the  form 
of  vapor,  the  stupefying  odor  of  which  when  noticed  in  the  air 
of  the  workroom  is  accepted  by  all  manufacturers  as  indicative  of 
a  disturbance  in  the  regular  working  of  the  generators.  This 
odor,  however,  becomes  perceptible  only  after  the  disturbance  has 
continued  for  some  time  with  the  loss  of  a  considerable  quantity 
of  alcohol.  Hence  the  control  of  the  working  of  the  generators 
by  a  frequent  determination  of  the  acid  becomes  necessary.  Re- 
peated observations  of  the  thermometer  also  furnish  valuable 
hints  about  the  progress  of  the  chemical  process.  The  temperature 
in  this  case  remains  only  for  a  short  time  unchanged  and  soon 
falls,  far  less  heat  being  liberated  in  the  mere  conversion  of  alco- 
hol into  aldehyde  than  when  oxidation  progresses  to  the  formation 


128  VINEGAR,    CIDER,   AND   FRUIT-WINES. 

of  vinegar.  These  phenomena  are  indicative  of  the  generator 
not  being  able  to  master  the  alcoholic  liquid  introduced  and  may 
be  due  to  the  pourings  being  too  large,  or  the  temperature  of  the 
alcoholic  liquid  poured  in  being  too  low,  or  finally  to  an  insuffi- 
cient draught  of  air. 

To  restore  the  generator  to  a  proper  state  of  working,  it  is  best 
to  try  first  the  effect  of  smaller  pourings  and  then  an  increased 
draught  of  air.  If  the  disturbance  was  due  to  an  insufficient 
draught  of  air,  the  temperature  soon  rises  and  the  generator  will 
be  able  to  work  up  the  regular  quantity  of  alcoholic  liquid.  By 
the  use  of  alcoholic  liquid  of  a  somewhat  higher  temperature  the 
restoration  of  the  normal  conditions  can  be  accelerated. 

A  decrease  in  the  content  of  acetic  acid  in  the  fluid  running 
off  from  the  generators  without  the  presence  of  alcohol  being 
shown  indicates  a  too  vigorous  process  of  oxidation,  the  alcohol 
being  not  only  oxidized  to  acetic  acid,  but  the  latter  further  into 
carbonic  acid  and  water.  The  temperature  in  the  interior  of  the 
generators  rises  considerably,  about  45°  F.  above  that  of  the 
workroom. 

In  this  case  the  restoration  of  the  respective  generator  to  a 
proper  state  of  working  is  not  difficult  and  can  be  effected  in  two 
ways :  either  by  considerably  decreasing  the  ventilation  of  the 
generator,  or  by  pouring  in  a  larger  quantity  of  alcoholic  liquid 
than  previously  used. 

The  heating  of  the  generators  is  generally  due  to  faulty  con- 
struction. Generators  of  large  dimensions,  as  a  rule,  become  too 
warm  much  easier  than  smaller  ones,  the  phenomenon  also  appear- 
ing more  frequently  in  summer  than  in  winter;  and  "too  warm" 
being  just  as  injurious  to  the  efficacy  of  the  generators  as  "  too 
cool,"  they  must,  during  the  warm  season  of  the  year,  be  as 
carefully  protected  against  too  high  a  temperature  as  against 
cooling  during  the  cold  season.  This  is  effected,  on  the  one  hand, 
by  a  suitable  ventilation  of  the  workroom  during  the  night,  and, 
on  the  other,  by  the  use  of  alcoholic  liquid  of  a  somewhat  lower 
temperature  during  the  hottest  season  of  the  year.  Moreover, 
disturbances  from  too  high  a  temperature  of  the  exterior  air  need 
only  be  feared  in  countries  with  a  very  warm  climate. 

It  has  been  frequently  proposed  to  counteract  a  too  vigorous 


FABRICATION   OF   VINEGAR.  129 

activity  of  the  generators  by  the  addition  of  a  little  oil  of  cloves 
or  salicylic  acid  which  have  the  property  of  checking  fermenta- 
tion. Salicylic  acid,  especially,  is  an  excellent  corrective  for  the 
faulty  working  of  a  generator ;  it  has  to  be  used,  however,  with 
great  caution  and  only  be  added  by  the  T-Q  JTF  or  °f  the  weight  of 
the  alcoholic  liquid  and  just  in  sufficient  quantity  to  attain  the 
desired  result.  A  large  amount  is  injurious  to  the  ferment  and 
might  kill  it. 

"  Sliming"  of  the  Generators. 

The  phenomenon  to  which  this  term  is  applied  belongs  to  a 
class  of  disturbances  which  sometimes  occur  in  a  vinegar  factory, 
and  whose  progress  generally  ends  in  throwing  the  entire  operation 
into  complete  disorder  so  that  finally  no  more  vinegar  can  be  pro- 
duced. After  fruitless  experiments  nothing  remains  but  to  empty 
the  generators,  wash  the  shavings  with  hot  water,  and,  after  drying 
and  steeping  them  in  hot  vinegar,  as  in  the  commencement  of  the 
operation,  return  them  to  the  generator. 

The  evil  begins  to  show  itself  by  the  generators  commencing 
to  work  irregularly ;  while  formerly  a  certain  quantity  of  alcohol 
was  after  a  fixed  number  of  pourings  converted  into  acetic  acid, 
a  larger  number  of  pourings  are  now  required  to  attain  the  same 
result.  The  generators  work  slower  and  the  heat  in  their  interior 
decreases.  By  heating  the  workroom  more  strongly  only  a  tem- 
porary improvement  is  brought  about,  and  the  production  of  the 
generators  becomes  less  and  less,  and,  finally,  so  low  that  work  has 
to  be  interrupted.  When  the  disturbance  has  progressed  thus  far  a 
disagreeable  musty,  instead  of  the  characteristic  acid  odor,  is  per- 
ceived in  the  workroom.  By  allowing  one  of  the  faulty  working 
generators  to  stand  for  a  few  days  without  charging  it  with  alco- 
holic liquid,  the  temperature  in  the  interior  may  rise  considerably 
and  products  of  putrefaction  be  developed  to  such  an  extent  as  to 
taint  the  air  of  the  workroom. 

Long  before  this  phenomenon  becomes  apparent  an  alteration 

takes  place  in  the  shavings.     A  shaving  taken  from  a  normally 

working  generator  has  the  ordinary  appearance  of  wet  wood  ;  but 

one  taken  from  a  generator  working  in  the  above-mentioned 

9 


130  VINEGAR,   CIDER,    AND    FRUIT-WINES. 

faulty  manner  is  coated  with  a  slimy  mass,  which  is  somewhat 
sticky  and  can  be  drawn  into  short  threads.  Viewed  under  the 
microscope  this  slimy  coating  presents  a  structureless  mass, 
throughout  which  numerous  germs  of  vinegar  ferment  are 
distributed  and  sometimes  also  vinegar  eels.  Independently  of 
the  presence  of  the  latter,  this  slimy  coating  presents  the  same 
appearance  as  the  so-called  mother  of  vinegar.  By  placing  a 
shaving  coated  with  slime  upright  in  a  shallow  dish  and  filling 
the  latter  f  the  height  of  the  shaving  with  alcoholic  liquid,  the 
previously  described  delicate  veil  of  vinegar  ferment  develops 
upon  the  surface,  while  the  portion  of  the  shaving  covered  by 
the  fluid  is  surrounded  by  flakes  distinguished  by  nothing  from 
mother  of  vinegar.  Hence  there  can  scarcely  be  a  doubt  that  the 
slimy  coating  actually  consists  of  the  same  structure  to  which  the 
term  mother  of  vinegar  (see  p.  34)  has  been  applied,  and  in 
searching  for  the  cause  of  its  formation,  it  will  generally  be 
found  to  be  due  to  conditions  similar  to  those  which  give  rise  to 
the  formation  of  the  latter.  An  alcoholic  liquid  overly  rich  in 
young  beer  containing  much  albumen,  or  one  to  which  much 
malt  extract  or  young  fruit-wine  has  been  added,  is  apt  to  give 
rise  to  the  formation  of  mother  of  vinegar  in  the  generators. 
The  slimy  coating  thus  formed  upon  the  shavings  envelops  the 
vinegar  ferment  and  prevents  its  immediate  contact  with  the  air ; 
consequently  the  alcoholic  liquid  does  not  encounter  as  much  fer- 
ment as  is  required  for  the  complete  oxidation  of  the  alcohol,  and 
the  generators  become  weaker.  This  decrease  in  the  production 
is,  of  course,  followed  by  a  lower  temperature  in  the  generators 
and  consequently  by  a  decrease  in  the  augmentation  of  the  fer- 
ment, these  unfavorable  conditions  finally  becoming  so  great  as 
to  bring  the  activity  of  the  generators  to  a  standstill. 

The  settlement  of  vinegar  eels  upon  the  surface  of  the  mother 
of  vinegar  has  no  connection  with  sliming.  Should,  however, 
large  masses  of  these  animalcules  happen  to  die  in  the  generators 
for  want  of  air,  due  to  the  constantly  decreasing  draught,  they 
quickly  putrefy  on  account  of  the  high  temperature  and  give  rise 
to  the  most  disagreeable  smells. 

A  careful  manufacturer  will  observe  sliming  at  the  commence- 
ment of  the  evil,  when  it  can  be  remedied  without  much  diffi- 


FABRICATION   OF   VINEGAR.  131 

eulty.  First  of  all,  the  composition  of  the  alcoholic  liquid  must 
be  changed  by  discontinuing  the  use  of  fluids  containing  many 
carbohydrates  and  albuminous  substances,  such  as  young  beer, 
malt  extract,  young  fruit-wine,  etc.,  it  being  best  to  use  alcoholic 
liquid  of  water,  vinegar,  and  alcohol  only  until  the  generators  are 
entirely  restored  to  a  normal  working.  The  activity  of  the  ferment 
is  at  the  same  time  increased  by  a  stronger  draught  of  air  in  the 
generators  and  by  raising  the  temperature  of  the  workroom.  In  a 
few  days  the  generators  will  be  again  in  a  proper  state  of  work- 
ing, which  is'  recognized  by  the  normal  conversion  of  alcohol 
into  acetic  acid. 

If,  however,  the  evil  has  progressed  to  a  certain  extent  nothing 
can  be  done  but  to  empty  the  generators.  Though  considerable 
labor  is  connected  with  this  operation,  there  is  no  further  use  of 
experimenting,  since  such  nonsensical  additions  as  beer-yeast, 
tartar,  honey,  etc.,  which  have  been  proposed  as  remedies,  only 
accelerate  the  final  catastrophe — the  entire  cessation  of  the  forma- 
tion of  vinegar.  Should  a  disturbance  occur  which  cannot  be 
accounted  for  by  defective  nourishment  of  the  ferment,  want  of 
air,  or  an  incorrect  state  of  the  temperature,  the  condition  of  the 
shavings  should  be  at  once  examined  into,  and  if  they  show  the 
first  stages  of  sliming  the  evil  should,  if  possible,  be  remedied  by 
changing  the  composition  of  the  alcoholic  liquid.  If  the  new 
alcoholic  liquid  contains  only  water,  vinegar,  and  alcohol  sliming 
cannot  progress,  and  the  layers  of  slime  upon  the  shavings  will  in 
a  short  time  disappear,  they  being  partially  utilized  in  the  nour- 
ishment of  the  ferment  and  partially  mechanically  washed  off  by 
the  alcoholic  liquid  running  down. 

Disturbances  due  to  Vinegar  Eels. 

In  many  factories  filamentous  structures  scarcely  visible  to  the 
naked  eye  will  frequently  be  observed  in  the  vinegar.  When 
viewed  under  the  microscope  they  will  be  recognized  as  animal- 
cules, to  which  the  term  vinegar  eel  (Anguilla  acdi)  has  been  ap- 
plied on  account  of  their  form  slightly  resembling  that  of  an  eel. 
Fig.  31  shows  a  microscopical  picture  of  a  drop  of  vinegar 


132  VINEGAR,   CIDER,   AND   FRUIT- WINES. 

swarming  with  vinegar  eels  slightly  magnified,  and  Fig.  32 
vinegar  eel  strongly  magnified. 

Fig.  31. 


Drop  of  vinegar  gwarming  with  vinegar  eels,  slightly  magnified. 
Fig.  32. 


Vinegar  eel  (female)  strongly  magnified. 

The  animalcule  consists  of  a  cylindrical  body  running  to  a 
sharp  point.  The  mouth-opening  is  covered  with  small  knots ; 
the  throat  is  globular  and  passes  directly  into  the  long  intestinal 


FABRICATION   OF   VINEGAR.  133 

tube.  The  eggs  are  placed  at  about  the  centre  of  the  body  in 
two  tubes  which  unite  to  a  plainly  perceptible  aperture.  The 
average  length  of  the  female  is  0.0682  Paris  inch  and  that  of 
the  male  0.0486,  the  former  being  larger  than  the  latter  in  the 
proportion  of  1  :  1.3. 

Vinegar  eels  can  exist  in  dilute  alcohol  of  the  strength  used 
in  the  fabrication  of  vinegar  as  well  as  in  dilute  acetic  acid.  In 
alcoholic  liquid  containing  much  alcohol  and  acetic  acid  they  do 
not  thrive  as  well  as  in  weak  liquid.  Their  part  in  the  fabrica- 
tion of  vinegar  is  under  all  conditions  an  injurious  one.  The 
vinegar  ferment  can  only  carry  on  its  function  correctly  when 
vegetating  upon  the  surface  of  the  fluid  and  in  contact  with  air. 
The  vinegar  eel  being  an  air-breathing  animal  always  seeks  the 
surface  and  in  an  alcoholic  liquid  which  contains  it  and  upon 
whose  surface  an  abundance  of  ferment  grows,  actual  contests 
between  animalcule  and  ferment  can  be  observed,  the  former 
striving  to  force  the  latter,  which  is  inimical  to  its  existence, 
under  the  surface  and  thus  render  it  harmless.  (Submerged 
vinegar  ferment,  as  is  well  known,  changes  its  conditions  of  ex- 
istence and  becomes  mother  of  vinegar.)  If  the  conditions  are 
favorable  for  the  development  of  the  animalcules,  the  latter  over- 
come the  ferment  and  submerge  it  so  that  it  can  continue  to  exist 
only  as  mother  of  vinegar,  and  consequently  the  process  of  the 
formation  of  vinegar  will  be  considerably  retarded.  Under  con- 
ditions favorable  to  the  development  of  the  ferment  the  reverse  is 
the  case.  The  ferment  floating  upon  the  fluid  consumes  nearly 
all  the  oxygen  contained  in  the  layer  of  air  immediately  above  the 
surface  and  thus  deprives  the  animalcules  of  a  condition  necessary 
for  their  existence  ;  a  portion  of  them  die  and  fall  to  the  bottom 
of  the  vessel,  while  another  portion  escape  to  the  sides  of  the  vessel 
where  they  congregate  immediately  above  the  surface  of  the  fluid 
in  such  masses  as  to  form  a  whitish  ring.  These  conditions  can 
be  readily  induced  by  pouring  vinegar  containing  a  large  number 
of  vinegar  eels  into  a  flat  glass  dish  and  adding  a  fluid  upon 
which  vinegar  ferment  has  been  artificially  cultivated.  In  a  few 
hours  the  ferment  has  spread  over  the  entire  surface  and  the 
animalcules  form  the  above-mentioned  white  ring  on  the  sides  of 
the  vessel.  If  by  means  of  blotting  paper  the  veil  of  ferment  be 


134  VINEGAR,    CIDER,    AND   FRUIT-WINES. 

removed  as  fast  as  it  augments,  the  animalcules  soon  spread  over 
the  entire  fluid. 

From  the  above  explanation  it  is  evident  that  the  appearance 
of  vinegar  eels  in  large  masses  threatens  danger  to  the  regular 
working.  When  the  animalcules  reach  the  shavings  the  struggle 
for  existence  between  them  and  the  ferment  commences,  and  their 
struggling  to  dislodge  the  latter  may  be  the  first  cause  of  the 
formation  of  slimy  masses  of  mother  of  vinegar  upon  the  shavings. 
Since  the  vinegar  eels  consume  oxygen  the  air  in  the  generators 
becomes  thereby  less  suitable  for  the  nourishment  of  the  ferment 
and  consequently  the  generators  will  work  feebly.  By  accelera- 
ting the  draught  of  air  in  the  generators,  which  is  generally  the 
first  remedy  tried,  the  development  of  the  ferment  may  again 
become  so  vigorous  that  a  large  portion  of  the  vinegar  eels  are 
killed,  their  bodies  being  found  in  the  vinegar  running  off.  -  The 
dead  vinegar  eels  remaining  in  the  generator,  however,  finally 
putrefy  and  give  rise  to  the  previously  mentioned  disagreeable 
odor.  The  processes  of  putrefaction  being  also  effected  by  bacteria 
capable  of  decomposing  nearly  all  known  organic  combinations 
(even  small  quantities  of  such  strongly  antiseptic  bodies  as  salicylic 
and  carbolic  acids),  it  is  evident  that  vinegar  containing  vinegar 
eels  cannot  possess  good  keeping  qualities  and  must  be  subjected 
to  a  special  treatment,  which  will  be  referred  to  later  on. 

Several  remedies  for  the  suppression  of  vinegar  eels  in  the 
generators  have  been  proposed,  one  of  them  consisting  of  the 
introduction  of  vapors  of  burning  sulphur,  i.  e.9  sulphurous  acid. 
Sulphurous  acid,  it  is  true,  kills  the  vinegar  eels  but,  at  the  same 
time,  the  vinegar  ferment,  and  if  small  remnants  remain,  also  the 
newly  introduced  ferment.  To  restore  a  generator  thus  treated  a 
large  quantity  of  air  must  be  blown  through  it  which  will  remove 
the  last  traces  of  sulphurous  acid.  An  alcoholic  liquid  containing 
much  living  ferment  is  then  poured  in. 

The  vinegar  ferment  can  for  many  hours  stand  the  exclusion  of 
oxygen  without  being  destroyed  while  the  vinegar  eels  die  in  a 
short  time.  This  circumstance  may  be  utilized  for  the  destruction 
of  the  animalcules  without  recourse  to  other  remedies.  The 
generator  having  first  been  brought  into  the  highest  state  of 
activity  by  pouring  in  very  warm  alcoholic  liquid  and  opening 


FABRICATION   OF   VINEGAR. 


135 


all  the  draught-holes,  is  left  to  itself  for  6  to  8  hours  after  closing 
all  the  draught-holes.  The  ferment  in  a  short  time  consumes  all 
the  free  oxygen  in  the  generators  and  the  vinegar  eels  die  from 
want  of  it.  By  opening  the  draught-holes  and  pouring  in  alco- 
holic liquid  the  normal  formation  of  vinegar  soon  recommences. 

The  killing  of  a  large  number  of  vinegar  eels  in  the  above 
manner  is,  however,  of  considerable  danger  to  the  regular  work- 
ing of  the  factory,  and  the  respective  generators  must  be  watched 
with  special  care  in  order  to  meet  at  once  any  appearance  of 
putrefaction.  It  may  sometimes  succeed  to  keep  up  the  work 
undisturbed,  the  killed  vinegar  eels  being  gradually  removed 
from  the  generators  by  the  vinegar  running  off.  In  such  criti- 
cal cases,  when  the  generator  may  at  any  moment  commence  to 
work  irregularly,  the  use  of  a  very  small  quantity  of  salicylic 
acid  as  an  addition  to  the  alcoholic  liquid  would  be  advisable. 
The  acid  by  checking  putrefaction  would  prevent  the  immediate 
decomposition  of  the  killed  vinegar  eels  still  present  in  the 
generators. 

Should,  however,  signs  of  putrefaction  appear  energetic,  means 
should  at  once  be  taken  to  arrest  its  progress,  it  being  in  this  case 

Fig.  ;33. 


Apparatus  for  the  Development  of  Sulphurous  Acid. 

best  to  sulphur  the  generator.     This  is  effected  by  closing  all  the 
draught-holes  except  one,  and  introducing    into  the  latter   the 
nozzle  of  the  apparatus  whose  arrangement  is  shown  in  Fig.  33. 
In  a  large  clay  vessel,  best  glazed  inside,  stands  upon  a  tripod 


136  VINEGAR,   CIDER,    AND   FRUIT- WINES. 

a  flat  plate.  The  cover  of  the  vessel  luted  air-tight  with  clay  is 
provided  with  three  openings.  The  opening  in  the  centre  is 
closed  by  a  well-fitting  clay  stopper,  while  glass  tubes  bent  at  a 
right  angle  and  with  a  clear  diameter  of  about  J  inch  are 
cemented  in  the  openings  at  the  side.  The  tube  reaching  nearly 
down  to  the  plate  is  connected  by  means  of  a  rubber  hose  with  a 
double-acting  bellows,  while  the  second  tube  leading  directly  from 
the  cover  is  connected  with  a  second  clay  vessel.  From  the  cover 
of  this  vessel  a  pipe  leads  to,  and  is  fitted  into,  the  open  draught- 
hole  of  the  generator. 

For  use  the  apparatus  is  put  together,  as  shown  in  the  illustra- 
tion, and  small  pieces  of  sulphur  are  thrown  through  the  cen- 
tral aperture  upon  the  plate.  The  sulphur  is  ignited  by  throw- 
ing in  a  lighted  sulphur  match,  and  after  closing  the  aperture  the 
bellows  is  put  in  operation.  The  product  of  the  combustion  of 
the  sulphur  passes  through  the  tube  into  the  generator,  and  as- 
cending dissolves  the  fluid  adhering  to  the  shavings  to  sulphurous 
acid.  The  addition  of  sulphur  and  blowing  in  of  air  are  con- 
tinued until  the  odor  of  burning  sulphur  is  clearly  perceptible  in 
the  upper  portion  of  the  generator.  The  second  vessel  which 
contains  some  water  serves  for  the  condensation  of  the  portion  of 
the  sulphur  which  is  not  consumed,  but  only  volatilized. 

The  sulphurous  acid  kills  every  living  organism  in  the  gene- 
rator, and  consequently  all  the  germs  of  the  vinegar  ferment  are 
also  destroyed. 

After  allowing  the  sulphured  generator  to  stand  a  few  hours, 
fresh  air  alone  is  forced  through  it  by  means  of  the  bellows ;  the 
air-holes  are  then  opened  and  the  generator  allowed  to  stand  a 
few  days  for  the  sulphurous  acid  to  be  converted  into  sulphuric 
acid  by  the  absorption  of  oxygen.  To  bring  this  generator  again 
into  operation  it  is  best  to  introduce  at  first  a  number  of  pourings 
consisting  only  of  vinegar,  with  a  content  of  acetic  acid  corre- 
sponding to  that  of  the  original  acidulation.  In  consequence  of 
the  absorption  of  sulphuric  acid  by  the  shavings  this  vinegar  be- 
comes of  no  value  as  a  commercial  article,  but  it  can  be  used  for 
the  preparation  of  alcoholic  liquid. 

The  last  traces  of  unchanged  sulphurous  acid  having  in  this 
manner  been  removed  from  the  generators  and  the  greater  portion 


FABRICATION   OF   VINEGAR.  137 

of  sulphuric  acid  adhering  to  the  shavings  washed  out,  the  gene- 
rator is  again  acidulated ;  this  being  best  effected  by  pouring  in 
alcoholic  liquid  just  run  off  from  normally  working  generators. 

Disturbances  due  to  Vinegar  Lice  (  Vinegar- Mites). 

Unless  the  most  scrupulous  cleanliness  prevails  so-called  vine- 
gar lice  will  always  be  found  in  the  factory ;  they  prefer  places 
kept  constantly  rnoist  and  to  which  the  air  has  free  access,  for  in- 
stance, the  draught-holes  and  the  interior  of  the  generators  be- 
neath the  lath-bottom.  As  a  rule  manufacturers  do  not  pay 
much  attention  to  their  presence,  as  they  apparently  exert  no 
influence  upon  the  regular  working.  That  such,  however,  is  not 
the  case  will  be  seen  from  the  following  occurrence  :  In  1881,  the 
proprietor  of  a  vinegar  factory  in  Italy  informed  Dr.  J.  Bersch 
that  millions  of  small  animals  had  appeared  in  the  factory  and 
penetrated  into  the  generators,  the  shavings  up  to  a  certain  height 
being  covered  with  living  and  dead  animals,  and  the  latter  putre- 
fying, further  working  had  become  impossible.  Every  drop  of 

Fig.  34. 


Vinegar-Mite,  according  to  Bersch.     X  120. 

vinegar  running  off  from  the  generators  contained  one  or  more 
of  the  mites.  A  small  bottle  half  full  of  vinegar  and  closed  air- 
tight by  a  cork  accompanied  the  communication.  Though  the 
bottle  had  been  60  hours  on  the  way,  on  opening  it  a  number  of 


138  VINEGAR,   CIDER,   AND   FRUIT- WINES. 

living  animals  were  found  congregated  especially  in  the  fissures 
of  the  cork.  On  examining  them  with  the  microscope  two  forms 
(male  and  female?)  could  be  clearly  distinguished,  many  being 
only  one-quarter  or  one-half  the  size  of  others.  Figs.  34  and  35 


Fig.  35. 


Vinegar-Mite  (from  the  under  side).     X  120. 

show  the  two  characteristic  forms  of  these  animalcules.  As  far 
as  it  was  possible  to  determine  their  zoological  position  they  be- 
long to  the  family  Sarcoptidce.  No  particulars  as  to  their  origin 
seem  to  be  known,  the  manufacturer  simply  stating  that  they 
had  come  from  the  soil  under  the  supports  of  the  generators  and 
gradually  rendered  the  latter  ineffective.  The  generators  were 
sulphured  in  the  above-described  manner  and  again  put  into 
operation. 

To  prevent  the  vinegar-mites  from  collecting  in  large  masses 
scrupulous  cleanliness  must  prevail  in  the  factory.  Especially 
should  the  draught-holes  be  from  time  to  time  examined,  and,  if 
mites  be  found,  thoroughly  cleansed  with  hot  water,  which  kills 
them.  The  mites  might  also  be  prevented  from  penetrating  into 
the  interior  of  the  generators  by  rings  of  a  sticky  substance  (tur- 
pentine) around  the  draught-holes. 


FABRICATION    OF    VINEGAR.  139 

Vinegar-Flies. 

Though,  as  far  as  known,  the  animals  known  as  vinegar-flies 
create  no  disturbance  in  the  regular  working  of  the  factory,  they 
deserve  mention  because  they  appear  wherever  a  fluid  passes  into 
acetous  fermentation.  In  wine  cellars,  not  kept  thoroughly  clean, 
these  insects  are  frequently  found  on  the  bung-holes  of  the  wine- 
barrels,  and  in  factories  in  which  the  manufacture  of  wine  vinegar 
is  carried  on  according  to  the  old  system,  they  often  occur  in  great 
swarms. 

The  vinegar-fly  (Drosophila  funebris,  Meig)  is  at  the  utmost 
0.11  inch  long;  it  is  especially  distinguished  by  large  red  eyes 
sitting  on  both  sides  of  the  head  and  meeting  in  front.  The 
thorax  and  legs  are  red,  the  abdomen  which  is  provided  with  six 
rings,  is  black,  with  yellow  stripes.  The  wings  are  longer  than  the 
body.  The  larva  is  white,  has  twelve  rings,  on  the  mouth  two 
black  hook-like  structures,  and  on  the  back  part  of  the  body  four 
warts  two  of  which  are  yellow.  In  eight  days  the  larva  is  trans- 
formed into  a  yellow  chrysalis. 

The  collection  of  these  flies  in  large  masses  can  be  readily  pre- 
vented by  keeping  the  factory  thoroughly  clean  and  being  espe- 
cially careful  not  to  spill  any  fluid. 


CHAPTER  XIV. 

METHOD    OF    THE    FABRICATION    OF   VINEGAR    IN    APPARATUS 
OF   SPECIAL   CONSTRUCTION. 

To  overcome  the  frequent  disturbances  in  the  working  of  a 
factory  not  provided  with  suitable  heating  and  ventilating  ar- 
rangements, several  kinds  of  apparatus  and  methods  have  been 
proposed.  Most  of  these  inventions  were  protected  by  patent, 
but  the  relinquishment  of  the  latter  in  a  short  time  is  the  best 
proof  of  their  non-success  in  practice.  A  few  of  them  are  here 
described,  not  because  they  are  considered  an  essential  pro- 
gress in  the  fabrication  of  vinegar,  but  simply  as  illustrations  of 


140 


VINEGAR,   CIDER,   AND   FRUIT-WINES. 


the  manner  in  which  the  respective  inventors  sought  to  overcome 
the  difficulties  arising  from  the  use  of  badly  constructed  appa- 
ratus. 

Singer's  Vinegar  Generator. 

Singer's  apparatus  consists  of  a  number  of  shallow  vats  for  the 
reception  of  the  alcoholic  liquid.  These  vats  are  connected  with 
each  other  by  a  number  of  tubes  so  that  the  alcoholic  liquid  after 
it  has  risen  to  a  certain  height  in  one  vat  reaches  the  next  one 
below  and  finally  runs  off  as  finished  vinegar  into  a  collecting 
vessel. 

Fig.  36. 


Singer's  Vinegar  Generator  (Cross  Section). 


Fig.  36  shows  the  apparatus  in  cross  section.  The  five  vats 
are  marked  A,  Av  B,  B19  and  C.  In  the  bottoms  of  A  and  Al 
are  placed  thirty-seven  tubes,  and  in  the  bottoms  of  B  and  B, 


FABRICATION   OF   VINEGAR. 


141 


thirty-two.  The  entire  apparatus  is  inclosed  in  a  glass  case  pro- 
vided below  with  several  apertures,  n,  with  regulators,  and  above 
with  a  valve,  m,  by  which  the  accurate  regulation  of  the  draught 
of  air  in  the  apparatus  is  to  be  effected.  The  rubber  hose  g  se- 
cured to  the  reservoir  E  conducts  at  h  the  alcoholic  liquid  through 
the  lid  covering  the  uppermost  vat  A.  In  this  vat  the  liquid 
rises  to  a  certain  height,  runs  through  the  apertures  in  the  sides 
of  the  tubes  into  the  vat  J5,  from  this  in  a  similar  manner  into 
Av  Bv  and  finally  into  the  collecting  vessel  D. 

The  process  of  the  formation  of  vinegar  is  claimed  to  proceed 
in  the  tubes  connecting  the  vats  with  each  other.     Fig.  37  shows 

Fig.  37. 


Singer's  Apparatus  (Connection  of  two  Vats  with  each  other). 

the  arrangement  of  these  tubes  on  an  enlarged  scale.  The  wooden 
tubes  are  closed  above  and  provided  each  with  four  apertures  for 
the  influx  of  alcoholic  liquid.  Inside  of  each  tube  are  six  an- 


142  VINEGAR,   CIDER,   AND   FRUIT-WINES. 

iiular  depressions,  four  above  and  two  below.  In  the  centre  is  a 
slit  for  the  access  of  air. 

To  be  able  to  discharge  at  will  the  fluid  in  one  vat  of  the  appa- 
ratus (Fig.  36)  into  the  next  below,  the  vats  are  connected  by  the 
pipe  i  closed  by  spigots.  The  lowest  vat,  C,  is  provided  with 
discharge-pipes,  I  and  k,  I  being  directly  above  the  bottom  of 
the  vat  and  k  about  1J  inch  higher  up.  The  collecting  vessel  D 
is  at  q  connected  by  means  of  a  rubber  hose  with  the  spigot  <7 
placed  on  C.  The  glass  tube  p,  which  is  bent  at  a  right  angle 
and  can  be  turned,  indicates,  when  in  an  upright  position,  the 
height  of  the  fluid  in  D,  and  with  the  mouth  turned  downwards 
serves  for  discharging  the  contents  of  D. 

The  apparatus  is  operated  as  follows :  By  opening  the  spigot 
E,  alcoholic  liquid  is  allowed  to  run  from  the  reservoir  into  the 
uppermost  vat,  A,  until  it  stands  about  J  to  }  inch  above  the 
apertures  in  the  tubes.  The  spigots  on  i  remain  closed  during  the 
normal  working  of  the  apparatus.  The  alcoholic  liquid  passes 
through  the  apertures,  trickles  through  the  tubes  into  the  vessel, 
and  gradually  reaches  in  the  same  manner  the  collecting  vessel 
D.  By  a  suitable  regulation  of  the  influx  of  alcoholic  liquid  from 
E  completely  finished  vinegar  is  claimed  to  collect  in  D. 

Michaelix's  Rotatory  Vinegar  Generator. 

The  principal  feature  of  this  apparatus,  which  has  been  patented 
in  Germany,  is  a  strong  barrel  placed  horizontally  and  having  a 
diameter  of  3.3  feet  and  the  same  height.  The  interior  of  this 
barrel  is  divided  into  two  chambers  by  a  horizontal  lath-bottom ; 
the  upper  smaller  chamber  is  filled  with  shavings  or  pieces  of 
charcoal.  In  the  bottom  below  the  lath-bottom  a  horizontal  tube 
serves  for  the  influx  of  air  and  a  spigot  above  in  the  side  of  the 
barrel  for  its  egress. 

The  alcoholic  liquid  is  poured  in  close  under  the  lath-bottom, 
the  air-spigot  closed,  and  the  barrel  revolved  so  that  the  shavings 
become  saturated.  In  about  fifteen  minutes  the  barrel  is  returned 
to  its  original  position  and  the  air-spigot  opened.  The  commence- 
ment of  the  formation  of  vinegar  is  soon  indicated  by  the  increased 
temperature,  and  the  apparatus  is  now  in  full  working.  To  make 


FABRICATION   OF   VINEGAR.  143 

the-  formation  of  vinegar  a  continuous  one,  it  is  only  necessary  to 
turn  the  barrel  several  times  a  day  in  order  to  saturate  the  shav- 
ings with  alcoholic  liquid.  The  progress  in  the  formation  of  vine- 
gar is  indicated  by  a  thermometer  placed  in  the  bottom  of  the  upper 
chamber.  The  end  of  the  process  is  indicated  by  the  falling  of  the 
thermometer. 

The  apparatus  is  cleansed  by  rinsing  the  shavings,  without  re- 
moving them  from  the  barrel,  with  hot  water,  filling  the  barrel 
with  strong  vinegar  and  drawing  it  off  after  24  hours. 

According  to  the  statements  of  the  inventor,  the  advantages  of 
his  apparatus  consist  in  its  cheapness,  simple  operation,  greater 
yield,  saving  of  alcohol,  and  better  quality  of  the  product. 

It  may,  ho\vever,  be  remarked  that  the  operation  is  not  so 
simple,  since  every  generator  has  to  be  several  times  turned 
daily,  for  which  labor  and  space  are  required.  How  the  appa- 
ratus, which  works  exactly  like  a  generator  filled  with  shavings, 
is  to  save  alcohol  and  yield  a  greater  product  of  a  better  quality 
cannot  be  explained  from  a  chemical  standpoint.  Just  as  little 
can  it  be  explained  where  the  ferment  indispensable  for  the 
formation  of  vinegar  is  to  come  from  if  the  apparatus  is  to  be 
cleansed  with  hot  water,  which  kills  all  the  ferment  upon  the 
shavings,  and  only  strong  vinegar  is  to  be  poured  in. 

Fabrication  of  Vinegar  with  the  Assistance  of  Platinum  Black. 

In  considering  the  theory  of  the  formation  of  vinegar  it  was 
mentioned  that  finely  divided  platinum  possesses  the  property  of 
converting  alcohol  into  acetic  acid.  This  property  of  platinum 
black  has  been  utilized  for  the  purpose  of  manufacturing  acetic 
acid  on  a  large  scale.  The  apparatus  used  is  composed  of  a 
series  of  shelves  about  one  foot  apart,  upon  which  rest  a  certain 
number  of  shallow  dishes  of  porcelain  or  stoneware.  In  the 
centre  of  each  of  these  and  supported  by  stoneware  or  glass 
tripods  rest  smaller  dishes  containing  the  platinum  black.  The 
whole  is  covered  with  a  glass  case,  if  the  apparatus  is  small,  or  a 
frame  of  wood  with  glass  windows  and  glass  top  for  the  produc- 
tion of  larger  quantities  of  acetic  acid.  The  air  is  made  to  cir- 
culate slowly  through  the  apparatus,  and  the  temperature  main- 


146 


VINEGAR,    CIDER,    AND    FRUIT-WINES. 


upwards.  In  front  of  the  bung-hole  this  tube  is  provided  with 
an  expansion  in  which  is  fitted  by  means  of  a  cork  a  tube,  b,  bent 
at  a  right  angle.  While  the  vinegar  is  stored,  this  tube  stands 
upright  as  indicated  by  the  dotted  lines,  and  is  secured  to  a  rubber 


Pis.  38. 


hose  reaching  to  the  bung-hole.  By  turning  the  tube  downward 
the  fluid  runs  out  through  the  tube  a  until  its  level  has  sunk  to 
the  dotted  line. 

Sometimes  the  vinegar  is  not  rendered  entirely  clear  by  storing^ 
and  filtering  has  to  be  resorted  to.  Before  referring  to  this  ope- 
ration a  few  words  will  be  said  in  regard  to  the  storing  of  vinegar. 

The  vinegar  brought  into  the  storage  barrels  contains  the  fol- 
lowing constituents :  Water,  acetic  acid,  alcohol  (very  little),  alde- 
hyde (very  little),  acetic  ether,  vinegar  ferment  (living  and  dead), 
extractive  substances  (depending  on  the  nature  of  the  alcoholic 
liquid  used).  Moreover,  there  arc  frequently  found  alcoholic  fer- 
ment (from  the  beer)  and  vinegar  eels  and  vinegar  mites,  if  these 
animals  exist  in  the  factory. 

By  filling  the  storage  barrels  to  the  bung-holes  and  closing 
them  air-tight,  the  vinegar  eels  and  vinegar  mites  die  in  a  short 
time  for  want  of  air  and  fall  to  the  bottom.  The  living  vinegar 
ferment  present  in  the  fluid  must  assume  the  form  in  which  it  can 
for  some  time  exist  without  free  oxygen,  i.  e.,  of  mother  of  vine- 
gar. When  in  consequence  of  the  shrinkage  in  the  volume  of  the 
vinegar  by  cooling  the  air  penetrates  through  the  pores  of  the 
wood,  it  is  first  utilized  for  the  conversion  of  the  small  quantity 
of  aldehyde  into  acetic  acid,  and  later  on  enables  the  vinegar  fer- 


TREATMENT   OF    FRESHLY-PREPARED    VINEGAR.  147 

ment  to  continue  to  exist  upon  the  surface  and  to  slowly  convert 
the  small  quantity  of  alcohol  still  present  into  acetic -acid. 

If  the  barrels  are  not  closed  absolutely  air-tight,  the  vinegar 
ferment  will  develop  quite  vigorously  upon  the  surface,  and  when 
all  the  alcohol  is  consumed  attack  the  acetic  acid,  so  that  when 
the  vinegar  is  tested  a  decrease  in  the  content  of  acetic  acid  is 
plainly  perceptible.  If  the  finished  vinegar  still  contains  consid- 
erable quantities  of  albuminous  substances  in  solution  (vinegar 
from  grain,  malt,  or  fruit),  or  if  it  contains  tartaric  and  malic  acids 
and  at  the  same  time  only  a  small  percentage  of  acetic  acid,  as 
most  fruit  vinegars  do  (seldom  more  than  5  per  cent.),  the  mold 
ferment  readily  settles  upon  the  vinegar  and  finally  dislodges  the 
vinegar  ferment  from  the  surface.  The  acetic  acid  is,  however, 
very  rapidly  destroyed  by  the  mold  ferment,  and  through  a  luxu- 
riant growth  of  the  latter,  which  floats  upon  the  surface  as  a 
white,  membranous  coating,  the  vinegar  may  in  a  few  weeks  lose 
one  or  more  per  cent,  of  it.  This  happens  so  frequently,  for  in- 
stance with  fruit-vinegar,  that  the  opinion  that  such  vinegar  cannot 
be  made  to  keep,  is  quite  general. 

Vinegar  which,  besides  a  considerable  quantity  of  extractive 
substances,  contains  the  salts  of  certain  organic  acids  (malic  and 
tartaric  acids),  for  instance,  vinegar  prepared  from  apples  or 
wine,  must  be  frequently  examined,  as  it  readily  spoils  and  may 
suffer  even  if  kept  in  barrels  constantly  filled  up  to  the  bung. 
In  fluids  containing  the  salts  of  the  above-mentioned  organic 
acids  a  ferment  may  frequently  develop,  even  when  the  air  is  ex- 
cluded, which  first  decomposes  the1  tartaric  and  malic  acids,  and 
though  these  acids  are  present  only  in  a  comparatively  small 
quantity,  they  influence,  to  a  considerable  extent,  the  flavor  of  the 
vinegar  on  account  of  their  agreeable  acid  taste.  In  vinegar  in 
which  this  ferment  has  long  existed  a  diminution  of  acidity  can 
be  readily  detected  by  the  taste,  and  by  the  direct  determination 
of  the  acid  a  decrease  in  its  content  can  be  shown  which,  if  cal- 
culated as  acetic  acid,  may  in  some  cases  amount  to  one  per  cent. 
Besides  the  loss  of  its  former  agreeable  taste  vinegar  thus 
changed  acquires  a  harsh  tang,  due  no  doubt  to  the  formation  of 
certain  not  yet  known  products  formed  by  the  ferment  effecting 
the  destruction  of  the  tartaric  and  malic  acids.  Moreover,  wine 


146 


VINEGAR,   CIDER,    AND   FRUIT-WINES. 


upwards.  In  front  of  the  bung-hole  this  tube  is  provided  with 
an  expansion  in  which  is  fitted  by  means  of  a  cork  a  tube,  6,  bent 
at  a  right  angle.  While  the  vinegar  is  stored,  this  tube  stands 
upright  as  indicated  by  the  dotted  lines,  and  is  secured  to  a  rubber 

> 
Fig.  38. 


I 


hose  reaching  to  the  bung-hole.  By  turning  the  tube  downward 
the  fluid  runs  out  through  the  tube  a  until  its  level  has  sunk  to 
the  dotted  line. 

Sometimes  the  vinegar  is  not  rendered  entirely  clear  by  storing, 
and  filtering  has  to  be  resorted  to.  Before  referring  to  this  ope- 
ration a  few  words  will  be  said  in  regard  to  the  storing  of  vinegar. 

The  vinegar  brought  into  the  storage  barrels  contains  the  fol- 
lowing constituents :  Water,  acetic  acid,  alcohol  (very  little),  alde- 
hyde (very  little),  acetic  ether,  vinegar  ferment  (living  and  dead), 
extractive  substances  (depending  on  the  nature  of  the  alcoholic 
liquid  used).  Moreover,  there  arc  frequently  found  alcoholic  fer- 
ment (from  the  beer)  and  vinegar  eels  and  vinegar  mites,  if  these 
animals  exist  in  the  factory. 

By  filling  the  storage  barrels  to  the  bung-holes  and  closing 
them  air-tight,  the  vinegar  eels  and  vinegar  mites  die  in  a  short 
time  for  want  of  air  and  fall  to  the  bottom.  The  living  vinegar 
ferment  present  in  the  fluid  must  assume  the  form  in  which  it  can 
for  some  time  exist  without  free  oxygen,  i.  e.,  of  mother  of  vine- 
gar. When  in  consequence  of  the  shrinkage  in  the  volume  of  the 
vinegar  by  cooling  the  air  penetrates  through  the  pores  of  the 
wood,  it  is  first  utilized  for  the  conversion  of  the  small  quantity 
of  aldehyde  into  acetic  acid,  and  later  on  enables  the  vinegar  fer- 


TREATMENT   OF    FRESHLY-PREPARED   VINEGAR.  147 

ment  to  continue  to  exist  upon  the  surface  and  to  slowly  convert 
the  small  quantity  of  alcohol  still  present  into  acetic -acid. 

If  the  barrels  are  not  closed  absolutely  air-tight,  the  vinegar 
ferment  will  develop  quite  vigorously  upon  the  surface,  and  when 
all  the  alcohol  is  consumed  attack  the  acetic  acid,  so  that  when 
the  vinegar  is  tested  a  decrease  in  the  content  of  acetic  acid  is 
plainly  perceptible.  If  the  finished  vinegar  still  contains  consid- 
erable quantities  of  albuminous  substances  in  solution  (vinegar 
from  grain,  malt,  or  fruit),  or  if  it  contains  tartaric  and  malic  acids 
and  at  the  same  time  only  a  small  percentage  of  acetic  acid,  as 
most  fruit  vinegars  do  (seldom  more  than  5  per  cent.),  the  mold 
ferment  readily  settles  upon  the  vinegar  and  finally  dislodges  the 
vinegar  ferment  from  the  surface.  The  acetic  acid  is,  however, 
very  rapidly  destroyed  by  the  mold  ferment,  and  through  a  luxu- 
riant growth  of  the  latter,  which  floats  upon  the  surface  as  a 
white,  membranous  coating,  the  vinegar  may  in  a  few  weeks  lose 
one  or  more  per  cent,  of  it.  This  happens  so  frequently,  for  in- 
stance with  fruit-vinegar,  that  the  opinion  that  such  vinegar  cannot 
be  made  to  keep,  is  quite  general. 

Vinegar  which,  besides  a  considerable  quantity  of  extractive 
substances,  contains  the  salts  of  certain  organic  acids  (malic  and 
tartaric  acids),  for  instance,  vinegar  prepared  from  apples  or 
wine,  must  be  frequently  examined,  as  it  readily  spoils  and  may 
suffer  even  if  kept  in  barrels  constantly  filled  up  to  the  bung. 
In  fluids  containing  the  salts  of  the  above-mentioned  organic 
acids  a  ferment  may  frequently  develop,  even  when  the  air  is  ex- 
cluded, which  first  decomposes  the"  tartaric  and  malic  acids,  and 
though  these  acids  are  present  only  in  a  comparatively  small 
quantity,  they  influence,  to  a  considerable  extent,  the  flavor  of  the 
vinegar  on  account  of  their  agreeable  acid  taste.  In  vinegar  in 
which  this  ferment  has  long  existed  a  diminution  of  acidity  can 
be  readily  detected  by  the  taste,  and  by  the  direct  determination 
of  the  acid  a  decrease  in  its  content  can  be  shown  which,  if  cal- 
culated as  acetic  acid,  may  in  some  cases  amount  to  one  per  cent. 
Besides  the  loss  of  its  former  agreeable  taste  vinegar  thus 
changed  acquires  a  harsh  tang,  due  no  doubt  to  the  formation  of 
certain  not  yet  known  products  formed  by  the  ferment  effecting 
the  destruction  of  the  tartaric  and  malic  acids.  Moreover,  wine 


148  VINEGAR,    CIDER,    AND    FRUIT-WINES. 

or  fruit-vinegars  in  which  this  ferment  has  for  a  considerable 
time  flourished,  lose  their  characteristic  agreeable  bouquet  which 
may  be  considered  the  greatest  damage. 

In  the  presence  of  a  large  number  of  vinegar  eels  their  bodies 
may  decay  and  impart  to  the  vinegar  a  very  disagreeable  putrid 
odor,  even  if  stored  in  barrels  closed  air-tight. 

The  advisability  of  filtering  the  vinegar  before  bringing  it  into 
the  storage  barrels  will  be  readily  understood  from  the  above  state- 
ment. By  filtration  it  is,  however,  only  possible  to  remove  the 
vinegar  eels  and  vinegar  mites  swimming  in  the  fluid  and  larger 
flakes  of  mother  of  vinegar.  The  ferments  and  bacteria  inducing 
putrefaction  cannot  be  thus  removed,  so  that  even  filtered  vinegar 
is  liable  to  spoil  when  stored. 

Heating  the  Vinegar. 

In  order  to  destroy  all  organisms  which  might  cause  the  spoil- 
ing of  the  vinegar,  it  is  recommended  to  heat  the  latter  to  about 
140°  F.  before  running  it  into  the  storage  barrels.  A  few 
moments  exposure  at  this  temperature  being  sufficient  for  the 
purpose,  a  large  volume  of  vinegar  can  in  a  short  time  be  heated 
with  the  use  of  a  suitable  apparatus,  such  as  is  shown  in  Fig.  39. 

In  the  head  of  the  barrel  b  is  secured  a  pipe  of  pure  tin  with 
very  thin  walls  and  a  clear  diameter  of  about  J  inch.  It  is 
coiled  in  a  boiler  filled  with  water,  which  it  enters  at  e  f  and 
leaves  at  h.  It  then  passes  into  the  barrel  6,  in  which  it  is  also 
coiled,  and  ends  outside  the  barrel  at  g.  At  i  it  expands  to  a 
capsule  in  which  a  thermometer,  t,  is  placed.  A  vat,  a,  placed  at 
a  certain  height  above  the  barrel  is  provided  with  a  wooden  stop- 
cock, c,  to  which  is  secured  a  rubber  hose,  d,  which  enters  the 
barrel  b  above  the  bottom.  The  pipe  k,  which  is  secured  on  top 
of  the  barrel  6,  is  open  on  both  ends  and  of  sufficient  length  to 
project  above  the  vat  a. 

The  boiler  is  filled  with  water  and  placed  in  an  ordinary 
hearth.  The  vat  a  is  filled  with  the  vinegar  to  be  heated  and 
kept  constantly  supplied.  The  water  being  heated  to  boiling  the 
stopcock  c  is  opened.  The  vinegar  now  runs  through  d  into  the 
barrel  6,  and,  after  filling  it,  flows  at  e  into  the  tin  coil  and  passes 


TREATMENT   OF    FRESHLY-PREPARED   VINEGAR. 


149 


through  it  in  the  direction  of  the  arrows,  whereby  it  is  heated. 
The  thermometer  t  dipping  into  the  hot  vinegar  indicates  the 
temperature,  and  the  influx  of  vinegar  is  accordingly  regulated 
by  opening  or  closing  the  cock  c.  As  shown  in  the  illustration, 

Fig.  39. 


Apparatus  for  heating  Vinegar. 

the  hot  vinegar  runs  through  the  coil  surrounded  by  cold  vinegar 
into  the  barrel  6,  whereby  it  is  cooled  off  and  the  vinegar  in  the 
barrel  preparatively  heated.  The  pipe  k,  open  on  both  ends, 
allows  the  escape  of  the  gases  developed. 

In  consequence  of  the  albuminous  substances  becoming  insol- 
uble by  heating,  the  vinegar  running  off  at  g  is,  as  a  rule,  more 
turbid  than  before.  It  is  brought  into  the  storage  barrels,  which 
need,  however,  not  be  closed  air-tight,  the  further  processes  taking 
place  in  the  vinegar  being  of  a  purely  chemical  nature  and  not 
caused  by  organisms.  The  latter  have  been  killed  by  heating, 
and,  together  with  all  other  foreign  bodies  suspended  in  the 
vinegar,  gradually  fall  to  the  bottom  of  the  barrel.  If  the 
vinegar  after  heating  is  allowed  to  lie  for  a  sufficiently  long 
time,  it  clarifies  completely  and  can  be  drawn  off  entirely  bright 
from  the  sediment. 


OF 


150 


VINEGAR,    CIDER,    AND   FRUIT- WINES. 

Filtration  of  the  Vinegar. 


The  bodies  suspended  in  the  vinegar  and  causing  its  turbidity 
being  very  small,  it  takes  some  time  before  they  settle  on  the 
bottom  and  the  fluid  becomes  entirely  clear.  To  accelerate  clari- 
fication the  vinegar  is  filtered. 

Fig.  40  shows  a  filter  suitable  for  the  purpose.  It  consists  of 
a  small,  strong  wooden  vat  provided  with  two  perforated  false- 
bottoms,  s  and  6.  Upon  the  lower  false-bottom  is  spread  a  linen 
cloth  and  upon  it  fine  sand  which  is  not  attacked  by  acetic  acid, 
or  small  pieces  of  charcoal.  Upon  the  smoothed  surface  of  the 

Fig.  40. 


Filter  for  Vinegar. 

sand  is  spread  a  layer  of  paper  pulp  f  to  1  inch  deep  which  is 
covered  with  a  linen  cloth  and  then  placed  upon  the  false  bottom 
6,  the  latter  being  forced  down  by  means  of  the  screw  k  and  the 
pieces  of  wood  r.  The  vinegar  to  be  filtered  is  in  the  vat  a  which 
is  connected  with  the  filtering  vat  by  the  stop-cock  h  and  the 
rubber  hose  s  8  to  10  feet  long.  By  opening  the  stop-cock  h  the 
filter  stands  under  the  pressure  of  a  column  of  fluid  8  to  10  feet 
high  and  the  filtered  vinegar  runs  off  through  an  aperture  in  the 
side  of  the  filtering  vat.  By  filling  the  filter  below  the  paper 


TREATMENT   OF   FRESHLY-PREPARED   VINEGAR.          151 


Fig.  41. 


pulp  with  fine  bar  sand  the  latter  retains  the  greater  portion  of 
the  solid  bodies  suspended  in  the  vinegar,  and  it  will  be  a  consid- 
erable time  before  the  pores  of  the  paper  pulp  become  choked  up 
to  such  an  extent  as  to  require  its  renewal. 

An  arrangement  suitable  for  filtering  larger  quantities  of  fluid 
under  an  increased  pressure  is  shown  in  Fig.  41. 

It  consists  of  a  strong  linen  bag,  S,  about  16  inches  in  diameter, 
and  a  jute  or  hemp  hose,  JR,  open  at  both  ends  and  about  6  inches 
in  diameter.  The  bag  is  tied  by  means  of  pack-thread  to  a 
cylindrical  piece  of  wood  which  is  secured  to  a  suitable  support. 
The  bag  is  then  connected  by 
means  of  the  rubber  hose  K 
with  the  reservoir  By  which  con- 
tains the  vinegar  to  be  filtered, 
and  is  placed  about  10  to  13 
feet  above  the  support  carrying 
the  bag.  The  bag  is  folded  so 
that  it  can  be  inserted  in  the 
hose  R,  the  latter  being  also  se- 
cured to  the  cylindrical  piece  of 
wood. 

By  slowly  opening  the  stop- 
cock on  the  reservoir  the  bag  is 
filled  with  vinegar,  but  being  en- 
veloped by  the  hose  R  cannot  en- 
tirely expand  but  only  as  far  as 
permitted  by  the  diameter  of  ft, 
so  that  though  its  entire  surface 
acts  as  a  filter  a  large  number 
of  folds  are  formed,  .and  it  is 
thus  protected  from  bursting 
even  under  the  pressure  of  a 
column  of  fluid  of  considerable 
height.  The  fluid  filtering 
through  the  bag  runs  down  on 
the  hose  and  collects  in  a  vessel 
placed  under  it. 

At  first  this  filter  generally  does  not  act  entirely  satisfactorily, 


Bag  Filter  for  Filtering  Vinegar  under 
Pressure. 


152  VINEGAR,   CIDER,   AND   FRUIT-WINES. 

the  fluid  running  off  turbid ;  and  this  continues  until  the  pores  of  the 
filter  have  become  sufficiently  contracted  to  retain  the  small  bodies 
suspended  in  the  fluid.  This  can,  however,  be  remedied  by  stir- 
ring some  charcoal  powder  into  the  first  portion  of  vinegar  to  be 
filtered  ;  the  charcoal  powder  adheres  to  the  sides  of  the  bag  and 
contracts  the  pores  of  the  tissue  so  that  the  fluid  runs  off  entirely 
clear. 

By  subjecting  the  freshly-prepared  vinegar  to  heating  and  filter- 
ing, a  commercial  article  is  obtained  which  is  perfectly  clear  and 
does  not  spoil  by  keeping.  By  storing  it,  however,  for  some  time 
in  barrels  it  gains  considerable  in  fineness  of  odor  and  taste. 
AVine-vinegar,  cider-vinegar  and  fruit-vinegars  in  general  should 
positively  be  stored  for  some  time,  the  odoriferous  bodies  which 
make  these  varieties  so  valuable  developing  only  by  that  means. 

Sulphuring  of  Vinegar. 

Sulphuring  has  long  been  employed  as  the  most  convenient 
method  for  the  preservation  of  wine,  and,  if  correctly  applied,  can 
also  be  used  for  that  of  vinegar.  But  as  sulphurous  acid  readily 
dissolves  in  vinegar  the  latter  must  not  be  brought  in  direct  con- 
tact with  the  gases  arising  from  the  burning  sulphur. 

The  sulphuring  of  vinegar  is  best  executed  as  follows :  The  bar- 
rel intended  for  the  reception  of  the  vinegar  is  thoroughly  rinsed 
and  immediately  placed  in  the  store-room.  Then  place  a  sulphur 
match  consisting  of  a  strip  of  linen  about  6  inches  long  and  f  to 
1  inch  broad  dipped  in  melted  sulphur,  into  a  perforated  sheet 
iron  cylinder  about  8  inches  long  and  1  inch  in  diameter,  secure 
this  cylinder  to  a  wire,  and  after  igniting  the  sulphur  match  lower 
it  from  the  bnnghole  to  the  centre  of  the  barrel.  The  sulphurous 
acid  formed  by  the  combustion  of  the  sulphur  is  at  once  dissolved 
by  the  water  adhering  to  the  interior  of  the  barrel.  A  sulphur 
match  of  the  above  size  suffices  for  a  barrel  of  100  to  125  gallons. 

Jf  the  sulphured  barrel  be  now  immediately  filled  with  vinegar, 
the  sulphurous  acid  becomes  distributed  throughout  the  fluid  and 
kills  the  vinegar  ferment  as  well  as  all  other  ferments  present,  so 
that  the  vinegar  cannot  undergo  any  further  change  except  it 
come  again  in  contact  with  living  ferments. 


TREATMENT   OF    FRESHLY-PREPARED    VINEGAR.  153 

The  sulphurous  acid  dissolved  in  the  vinegar  is  after  some  time 
converted  into  sulphuric  acid  and  its  presence  can  be  readily  de- 
tected. It  may,  however,  be  remarked  that  the  quantity  of  sul- 
phuric acid  reaching  the  vinegar  in  the  above  manner  is  an  exceed- 
ingly small  one,  and,  moreover,  is  partially  fixed  to  the  mineral 
bases  (lime  and  magnesia)  contained  in  the  water  used  in  the 
preparation  of  the  alcoholic  liquid.  Hence  a  manufacturer  who 
sulphurs  his  barrels  need  not  fear  being  accused  of  having  adul- 
terated his  vinegar  by  the  direct  addition  of  sulphuric  acid. 
Sulphured  vinegar  must  be  stored  at  least  several  weeks  before  it 
is  salable,  the  odor  of  sulphurous  acid  adhering  to  it  perceptibly, 
and  disappearing  only  at  the  rate  at  which  the  sulphurous  acid  is 
converted  into  sulphuric  acid. 

Fining  of  Vinegar. 

In  a  manner  similar  to  that  of  wine,  vinegar  can  be  obtained 
bright  by  "  fining"  with  isinglass.  This  method  offers  no  advan- 
tages as  compared  with  filtration,  though  it  is  employed  by  many 
manufacturers.  The  isinglass  to  be  used  is  prepared  as  follows  : 
One  to  two  grammes  (0.56  to  1.12  drachms)  of  isinglass  per 
hectoliter  (22  imp.  gallons)  are  cut  into  narrow  strips  with  the 
scissors  and  soaked  in  water  in  a  porcelain  dish  for  twenty- 
four  hours.  The  jelly-like,  nearly  colorless  mass  is  pressed 
through  a  linen  cloth.  A  solution  of  0.6  to  1.2  gramme  (0.033 
to  0.067  drachm)  of  tannin  per  hectoliter  (22  imp.  gallons)  is 
then  added  to  the  isinglass  and  the  mass  diluted  with  vinegar. 
The  whole  is  then  thrown  into  the  barrel  and  thoroughly  mixed 
with  the  contents.  The  clarified  vinegar  is  finally  drawn  off 
from  the  sediment. 

Coloring  Vinegar. 

Vinegar  prepared  from  alcohol  is  either  clear  as  water  or  only 
slightly  colored.  Before  the  general  introduction  of  the  quick 
process  consumers  were  accustomed  to  the  dark  yellow  product 
prepared  from  wine  or  beer,  and  many  are  still  prejudiced  against 
slightly-colored  vinegar,  considering  it  weaker.  Unfounded  as 


154  VINEGAR,    CIDER,    AND   FRUIT-WINES. 

this  prejudice  is,  the  manufacturer  is  nevertheless  obliged  to  re- 
cognize it  and  color  his  vinegar  by  artificial  means.  This  is  best 
effected  by  caramel  or  burnt  sugar  prepared  from  glucose,  which 
is  entirely  harmless.  It  is  best  prepared  by  melting  the  glucose 
in  a  shallow  iron  vessel  over  a  fire,  stirring  constantly  with  a 
long-handled  spoon.  The  melted  mass  soon  browns  and  rises  in 
the  vessel.  The  conversion  of  the  sugar  into  caramel  being  much 
hastened  in  the  presence  of  an  alkaline  body,  1J  to  2  per  cent,  of 
the  weight  of  the  glucose  used  of  pulverized  ammonium  carbonate 
is  added  at  this  stage.  The  mass  is  now  heated  with  constant 
stirring  until  it  becomes  black,  runs  from  the  spoon  in  viscous, 
dark  brown  threads,  and  a  sample  dropped  upon  a  cold  surface 
congeals  to  a  black  mass  impervious  to  light  except  on  the  edges. 
The  vessel  is  then  lifted  from  the  fire  and  the  contents  poured  out 
upon  metal  or  stone  plates.  The  taste  of  the  congealed  mass 
should  not  be  bitter  or  at  least  only  slightly  so.  On  exposure  to 
the  air  the  caramel  deliquesces  to  a  thick  black  fluid,  and,  hence,  it 
should  immediately  after  its  preparation  be  converted  with  water 
into  a  solution  of  the  consistency  of  syrup,  such  concentrated  solu- 
tion keeping  better  than  a  dilute  one  which  easily  molds.  Im- 
mediately before  use  the  solution  is  diluted  with  water,  and  enough 
of  it  added  to  the  vinegar  to  give  it  the  desired  coloration. 


CHAPTER  XVI. 

PREPARATION    OF    VINEGAR    FROM    VARIOUS   MATERIALS. 

SINCE  acetic  acid  is  formed  by  the  oxidation  of  alcohol,  vine- 
gar can,  of  course,  be  prepared  from  every  fluid  containing  alco- 
hol, such  as  beer,  wine,  cider,  as  well  as  from  the  juice  of  saccha- 
riferous  fruits  which  has  passed  into  alcoholic  fermentation.  By 
allowing  grain  to  germinate,  a  body,  to  which  the  term  diastase  is 
applied,  is  formed  which  possesses  the  property  of  converting  starch 
into  fermentable  sugar  and  dextrin  when  brought  into  contact 
with  it  under  certain  conditions.  Vinegar  can,  therefore,  be  pre- 
pared from  starch— though  in  a  round-about  way — by  treating 


VINEGAR   FROM   VARIOUS   MATERIALS.  155 

the  latter  with  grain  containing  diastase  (malt),  whereby  it  is  con- 
verted into  maltose  and  dextrin.  This  fluid  (sweet  mash)  is 
compounded  with  yeast,  and  the  sugar  (and  with  a  correct  execu- 
tion of  the  process  the  dextrin  also)  converted  into  alcohol  by 
vinous  fermentation.  The  resulting  alcoholic  liquid  can  then  be 
used  for  the  fabrication  of  vinegar. 

Alcohol  or  spirits  of  wine  obtained  in  the  above-described  man- 
ner from  the  starch  contained  in  potatoes  or  grain  being  at  present 
the  chief  material  used  in  the  manufacture  of  vinegar,  the  greater 
portion  of  the  latter  brought  into  commerce  might  actually  be 
designated  potato  or  malt  vinegar  according  to  the  elementary 
material  used.  The  great  progress  made  in  modern  times  in  the 
fabrication  of  malt,  brewing  of  beer,  and  in  the  distilling  industry 
has  been  accompanied  by  a  constantly  extending  division  of  labor. 
While  formerly  every  brewer  and  distiller  prepared  his  own 
malt,  there  are  at  present  numerous  establishments  exclusively 
engaged  in  this  branch  of  the  industry  which  sell  their  product 
to  the  brewer  and  distiller.  The  manufacturer  of  vinegar  who 
did  not  use  materials  containing  finished  alcohol  (beer  or  wine) 
had  to  undertake  the  laborious  work  of  fabricating  the  malt,  and 
preparing  and  fermenting  the  mash  in  order  to  obtain  an  alcoholic 
liquid  which  he  could  finally  convert  into  vinegar.  With  the 
present  improvements  in  the  fabrication  of  malt  and  the  distilling 
of  alcohol,  the  vinegar  manufacturer  can  work  more  cheaply  by 
buying  the  alcohol,  and  the  manufacture  of  so-called  malt  or 
grain  vinegar  would  pay  only  where  heavy  taxes  prevent  the 
direct  use  of  alcohol. 

Formerly,  when,  in  consequence  of  defective  processes,  many  a 
brewing  or  batch  of  malt  spoiled  it  was  used  for  the  fabrication 
of  vinegar.  But,  as  a  rule,  the  vinegar  obtained  was  not  of  a 
fine  taste  and  remained  turbid,  and  besides  the  operation  was  fre- 
quently interrupted  by  all  sorts  of  incidents,  which  led  to  the 
opinion  of  malt-vinegar  not  possessing  keeping  properties. 

Beer- wort  judged  by  its  composition  does  not  seem  a  suitable 
material  for  the  fabrication  of  vinegar.  Besides  a  certain  quantity 
of  fermentable  sugar  (maltose),  it  contains  a  considerable  amount 
of  dextrin  and  other  fermentable  bodies.  For  the  purpose  of  the 
fabrication  of  vinegar  the  maltose  alone  can  be  considered,  it 


156  VINEGAR,    CIDER,    AND   FRUIT-WINES. 

being  the  only  fermentable  constituent  of  beer-wort.  Hence, 
vinegar  prepared  from  beer-wort  always  contains  a  considerable 
quantity  of  dextrin  and  extractive  substances,  and,  consequently, 
is  of  a  more  thickly-fluid  nature  than  belongs  to  vinegar,  and 
clarifies  with  difficulty.  Moreover,  this  evil  exerts  a  disturbing 
influence  upon  the  behavior  of  the  vinegar  when  stored,  it  being 
frequently  changed  by  further  processes  of  fermentation  into  a 
slimy  fluid,  and  acquires  an  insipid  taste  and  loses  a  large  portion 
of  its  content  of  acetic  acid. 

Alcoholic  mashes  containing  in  consequence  of  faulty  preparation 
a  considerable  quantity  of  dextrin  show,  when  used  for  the  fabrica- 
tion of  vinegar,  a  behavior  similar  to  that  of  beer-wort ;  the  vinegar 
obtained  clarifies  with  difficulty  and  does  not  keep  well.  Fer- 
mented whiskey-mashes  properly  prepared  contain,  howrever,  only 
very  small  quantities  of  dextrin  and  extractive  substances,  and, 
when  freed  by  filtration  from  admixed  husks,  can  be  used  as  a 
material  for  the  manufacture  of  vinegar  and  yield  an  entirely 
normal  product. 

According  to  experience,  the  process  of  the  formation  of  vinegar 
proceeds  in  the  most  uniform  manner  by  preparing  the  alcoholic 
liquid  from  dilute  alcohol,  and,  consequently,  in  a  vinegar  factory 
connected  with  a  distillery  it  would  be  best  to  dilute  non-rectified 
spirits  of  wine  with  the  required  quantity  of  water  and  add  from 
10  to  20  per  cent,  of  the  weight  of  the  alcoholic  liquid  of  fer- 
mented mash.  The  latter  containing  salts  and  nitrogenous  sub- 
stances suitable  for  the  nourishment  of  the  vinegar  ferment  serves, 
in  this  case,  as  a  substitute  for  the  beer  generally  used  in  vinegar 
factories  for  the  preparation  of  alcoholic  liquid. 

Manufacture  of  Vinegar  from  Malt  and  Grain. 

Under  certain  local  conditions  the  manufacture  of  vinegar 
from  malt,  with  or  without  an  addition  of  grain,  can  be  profi- 
tably carried  on  in  connection  with  that  of  compressed  yeast. 
Such  factories  being  for  evident  reasons  not  established  on  an 
extensive  scale,  a  description  of  the  fabrication  of  vinegar  in  con- 
nection with  that  of  compressed  yeast  without  the  use  of  expen- 
sive machinery  will  be  given. 


VINEGAR   FROM   VARIOUS   MATERIALS.  157 

The  preparation  of  the  fundamental  material,  malt,  requiring 
much  labor  and  knowledge,  it  will  be  best  for  the  manufacturer 
to  buy  the  article  already  prepared.  Malt  kiln-dried  at  as  low  a 
temperature  as  possible  and  yielding  a  light-colored  extract  when 
treated  with  warm  water  should  be  chosen.  Many  malt  houses 
prepare  such  malt  especially  for  distilling  purposes.  Malt  pre- 
pared for  brewing  purposes  is  after  the  actual  kiln-drying  heated 
to  a  temperature  frequently  exceeding  158°  F.  for  the  formation 
of  certain  aromatic  combinations  and  coloring  substances  which 
arc  to  impart  to  the  beer  a  specific  taste  and  dark  coloration. 
Independently  of  the  dark  color  of  the  vinegar  prepared  from  such 
malt,  it  contains  a  considerable  quantity  of  dextrin  and  conse- 
quently acquires  an  insipid  by-taste,  clarifies  with  difficulty,  and 
is  readily  subject  to  injurious  alterations.  Malt,  as  is  well  known, 
contains  diastase,  which  in  mashing  the  malt  with  water  effects 
the  conversion  of  the  starch  into  maltose  and  dextrin.  By  kiln- 
dry  ing  at  a  very  high  temperature  a  portion  of  the  diastase  is, 
however,  rendered  ineffective,  and  in  mashing  comparatively  little 
maltose  but  a  large  quantity  of  dextrin  is  formed.  Mashing,  in 
this  case,  would  have  to  be  continued  for  a  long  time  in  order  to 
obtain  a  larger  quantity  of  maltose. 

With  the  use  of  but  slightly  kiln-dried  malt,  in  which  the  effi- 
cacy of  the  diastase  has  not  been  injured  by  a  high  temperature, 
the  greatest  directly  obtainable  quantity  of  maltose  and  the 
smallest  amount  of  dextrin  are  procured.  The  proportion  of 
maltose  to  dextrin  is  in  this  case  as  4  :  1,  or,  in  other  words,  the 
finished  mash  contains  about  80  per  cent,  of  maltose  and  20  per 
cent,  of  dextrin.  The  dextrin  cannot  be  directly  converted  into 
acetic  acid  by  the  vinegar  ferment  and  consequently  would  be 
found  in  the  finished  product.  It  is,  however,  possible  to  treat 
the  finished  mash  in  such  a  manner  that  the  total  quantity  of  dex- 
trin contained  in  it  can  be  converted  into  maltose  and  the  latter 
into  alcohol.  In  this  case  the  theoretically  calculated  yield  of 
vinegar  from  the  malt  will  be  nearly  approached  in  practice,  and 
the  product  thus  obtained  contain  only  a  small  quantity  of  ex- 
tractive substances  of  the  malt  which  are  not  decomposed  by 
alcoholic  or  acetous  fermentation. 

Before  entering  upon  a  description  of  the  mashing  process, 


158  VINEGAR,    CIDER,    AND   FRUIT-WINES. 

the  theoretical  part  in  mashing  will  be  briefly  discussed.  Malt 
contains  starch  and  diastase.  By  bringing  the  comminuted  malt 
in  contact  with  water  of  about  131°  to  133°  F.  the  starch  is 
formed  into  paste  and  the  diastase  passes  into  solution.  By  the 
action  of  the  diastase  upon  the  starch  the  latter  is  converted  into 
maltose  and  dextrin,  the  finished  mash  containing  80.9  per  cent, 
of  maltose  and  19.1  of  dextrin.  For  reasons  given  later  on  the 
finished  mash  is  heated  for  a  short  time  to  140°  to  140.8°  F., 
without,  however,  exceeding  this  temperature,  and  then  cooled  off 
to  the  degree  required  for  the  induction  of  alcoholic  fermenta- 
tion. 

Mash  prepared  in  this  manner  contains,  besides  the  stated  quan- 
tities of  maltose  and  dextrin,  effective  diastase,  i.  e.,  such  as 
possesses  the  power  of  liquefying  starch.  (By  heating  to1  above 
158°  F.  the  diastase  entirely  loses  this  property.)  By  compound- 
ing a  mash  of  this  nature  with  yeast,  the  diastase  with  the  simul- 
taneous action  of  the  yeast  is  able  to  convert  all  the  dextrin  pres- 
ent in  the  fluid  into  maltose,  and,  consequently,  the  total  quantity 
of  starch  originally  present  is  converted  into  alcohol  by  this  pecu- 
liar process  to  which  the  term  after-effect  of  the  diastase  has  been 
applied. 

The  yield  of  acetic  acid  which  can  be  obtained  from  a  given 
quantity  of  malt  can  be  calculated  in  a  simple  manner.  Air- 
dried  malt  contains  in  round  numbers  about  68  per  cent,  of 
starch  and  dextrin.  Theoretically  1  kilogramme  of  starch  yields 
71.612  liter  per  cent,  of  alcohol ;  in  practice,  however,  only  about 
55  liter  per  cent.,  and,  after  deducting  a  loss  of  15  per  cent, 
during  the  conversion  of  alcohol  into  vinegar,  the  quantity  of 
acetic  acid  which  can  be  actually  obtained  from  a  given  quantity 
of  malt  can  be  determined. 

Example:  What  is  the  yield  of  10  per  cent,  vinegar  in  working 
500  kilogrammes  of  barley  malt? 

Five  hundred  kilogrammes  of  malt  with  68  per  cent,  of  starch 
(and  dextrin)  contain  340  kilogrammes  of  starch  (and  dextrin). 

Three  hundred  and  forty  kilogrammes  of  starch  (and  dextrin) 
give  (with  a  yield  of  55  per  cent.)  18.700  liters  per  cent,  of  alcohol. 

One  hundred  and  eighty  seven  liters  of  alcohol  (specific  gravity 
at  59°  F.  mm  0.795)  are  equal  to  148.665  kilogrammes  of  alcohol. 


VINEGAR    FROM    VARIOUS    MATERIALS.  159 

One  hundred  kilogrammes  yield,  according  to  theory,  130.4  kilo- 
grammes of  acetic  acid;  in  practice,  after  deducting  a  loss  of  15 
per  cent,  during  the  formation  of  vinegar,  110.84  kilogrammes. 

148.665  kilogrammes  of  alcohol  (15  per  cent,  of  loss)  yield 
164.78  kilogrammes  of  100  per  cent,  acetic  acid. 

164.78  kilogrammes  of  (100  per  cent.)  acetic  acid  yield  in  round 
numbers  1647  liters  of  10  per  cent,  vinegar. 

The  above  calculation  is,  however,  only  approximately  correct, 
as  all  the  losses  occurring  in  practice  cannot  be  determined  with 
complete  accuracy. 

Unmalted  grain  being  cheaper  than  malt  and  the  latter  contain- 
ing sufficient  diastase  to  convert  a  very  large  quantity  of  starch 
into  maltose  and  dextrin,  a  mixture  of  malt  and  unmalted  grain 
(equal  parts  of  both  ;  f  grain  and  J  malt,  etc.)  can  be  used  instead 
of  malt  alone.  The  latter  is,  however,  preferable  for  the  manu- 
facture of  vinegar,  it  yielding  a  product  of  a  finer  taste  than  un- 
malted grain.  The  mode  of  preparing  the  mash  is  exactly  the 
same  as  for  the  distillation  of  alcohol,  and  as  the  necessary  infor- 
mation can  be  obtained  from  any  treatise  on  that  subject  only  a 
brief  sketch  of  the  operation  will  be  given  here. 

The  malt  carefully  ground  is  mixed  with  cold  water  to  a  thin 
paste  which  is  stirred  until  all  small  lumps  are  dissolved.  This 
mixing  of  the  ground  malt  with  water,  or  dougliing  in  as  it  is 
called,  can  be  effected  with  the  assistance  of  a  crutch  or  rake,  but 
best  in  a  vat  provided  with  a  mechanical  stirring  apparatus. 

Doughing  in  being  finished,  water  of  140°  to  149°  F.  is  per- 
mitted to  run  in  until  the  mash  shows  a  temperature  of  about 
131°  to  133°  F.  During  this  operation  the  mash  should  be 
constantly  stirred.  The  at  first  thickly-fluid  mass  will  soon  be 
observed  to  become  thinly-fluid  by  the  starch  paste  being  con- 
verted into  soluble  bodies.  Mashing  is  finished  in  2  to  2J  hours, 
and  will  be  the  more  complete  the  more  accurately  the  temperature 
is  maintained  at  131°  to  133°  F.  The  completion  of  the  process 
is  recognized  by  a  filtered  sample  cooled  to  the  ordinary  tempera- 
ture remaining  colorless  after  the  addition  of  iodine  solution. 

The  mash  having  reached  this  state,  sufficient  hot  water  is  added 
with  constant  stirring  to  raise  the  temperature  to  140°  or  141.8°  F. 


160  VINEGAR,    CIDER,    AND    FRUIT- WINES. 

The  purpose  of  this  operation  is  to  render  all  ferments  present  in 
the  mash  ineffective.  Lactic  acid  ferment  and  frequently  also 
butyric  acid  ferment  always  adhere  to  the  malt,  and,  if  allowed  to 
develop  in  the  mash,  would  form  lactic  and  butyric  acids  during 
fermentation  which  would  be  injurious  to  the  process  of  alco- 
holic fermentation  as  well  as  to  the  properties  of  the  vinegar  to 
be  manufactured.  The  mash  is  now  reduced  to  a  temperature  of 
about  57°  or  59°  F.  by  bringing  it  into  the  cooling-back  or  pass- 
ing it  through  a  system  of  refrigerating  pipes.  '  When  working 
on  a  small  scale  the  mash  can  be  suitably  cooled  by  allowing  cold 
water  to  pass  through  a  coil  placed  in  the  vat  containing  it. 

The  strength  of  the  vinegar  to  be  manufactured  depends  on 
the  concentration  of  the  mash  ;  mashes  showing  a  saccharometer 
statement  of  20  per  cent,  contain  after  fermentation  about  9J  per 
cent,  of  alcohol  which  yields  vinegar  of  about  8  per  cent. ;  mashes 
showing  18  per  cent,  yield  vinegar  of  about  7  per  cent.,  so  that  1 
per  cent,  of  acetic  acid  in  the  vinegar  may  be  calculated  on  for 
about  every  2J  degrees  indicated  by  the  saccharometer. 

The  mash  is  now  set  with  yeast,  though  the  latter  may  be  added 
when  the  mash  still  shows  a  temperature  of  71.5°  to  75°  F.,  the 
yeast  having  then  time  to  vigorously  augment.  Mashes  prepared 
from  malt  alone  are  uncommonly  rich  in  nourishing  substances 
for  the  yeast,  the  latter  augmenting  abundantly  and  inducing  a 
very  vigorous  process  of  fermentation.  This  can  be  profitably 
utilized  by  combining  the  manufacture  of  vinegar  and  that  of 
compressed  yeast,  a  valuable  product  being  thus  obtained  without 
any  extra  expense  and  with  but  little  labor.  At  a  certain  stage 
of  the  alcoholic  fermentation  the  yeast  comes  to  the  surface  of  the 
fluid  and  can  be  lifted  off.  By  washing  the  yeast  once  or  twice 
with  cold  water  and  then  freeing  it  from  the  excess  of  water  by 
pressing,  compressed  yeast  is  obtained  which,  with  the  exception 
of  the  portion  to  be  used  for  setting  fresh  mashes,  can  be  sold. 

Up  to  the  completion  of  alcoholic  fermentation  the  treatment 
of  the  mash,  as  can  be  seen  from  tho  preceding  description,  does 
not  essentially  differ  from  that  to  which  mashes  for  the  manufac- 
ture of  alcohol  are  subjected.  If,  however,  the  completely  fer- 
mented "ripe"  mash  is  to  be  used  for  the  fabrication  of  vinegar, 


VINEGAR   FROM   VARIOUS    MATERIALS.  161 

it  should  be  subjected  to  a  special  treatment  the  object  of  which 
is  to  prepare  a  fluid  containing  no  living  yeast. 

By  filtering  the  mash  through  a  closely  woven  linen  cloth  the 
particles  of  malt-husks,  etc.,  are  retained  but  not  the  cells  of  alco- 
holic ferment  which  may  be  present  and  which,  on  account  of 
their  minuteness,  are  difficult  to  separate  from  the  fluid  by  filtra- 
tion. It  is,  therefore,  best  to  heat  the  mash  before  filtration  to 
about  140°  F.  whereby  the  ferment  is  killed  and  at  the  same  time 
a  certain  quantity  of  the  albuminous  substances  dissolved  in  the 
fluid  rendered  insoluble  and  separated.  The  heating  of  the  mash 
is  best  effected  by  passing  it  through  a  coil  of  tin-pipe  placed  in 
a  boiler  filled  with  water  kept  constantly  boiling.  The  tempera- 
ture of  the  fluid  can  be  readily  regulated  by  increasing  or  decreas- 
ing the  velocity  with  which  it  passes  through  the  coil.  If  the 
fluid  heated  to  140°  F.  were  allowed  to  cool  in  the  air,  a  large 
portion  of  the  alcohol  contained  in  it  would  be  lost  by  evaporation, 
and  it  is  therefore  allowed,  after  heating,  to  pass  through  a  second 
coil  of  pipe  which  is  surrounded  by  cold  water  whereby  it  is 
cooled  to  at  least  86°  F.  This  fluid  is  then  filtered  through  a 
linen  bag,  it  being  repeatedly  poured  back  into  the  filter  until  it 
runs  off  sufficiently  clear.  It  will  not,  however,  be  obtained  per- 
fectly cldar  in  this  manner,  the  yeast  cells  being  too  minute  to  be 
retained  by  such  a  filter,  but  having  been  killed  by  heating,  their 
presence  in  the  fluid  is  connected  with  no  disadvantage. 

By  mixing  the  filtered  fluid  with  from  10  to  15  per  cent,  of  its 
volume  of  vinegar,  an  alcoholic  liquid  is  obtained  which  can  be 
worked  in  the  usual  manner  in  the  quick-process  generators,  and 
yields  an  agreeable  aromatic  vinegar  which  clarifies  rapidly  and 
improves  by  storing. 

According  to  the  slow  process,  the  fermented  malt-wort  is  run 
into  casks  placed  in  apartments  called  "  stoves/7  since  they  are 
heated  by  stoves  or  steam  at  a  temperature  ranging  from  70°  to 
80°  F.  The  casks  are  arranged  in  parallel  rows,  resting  upon 
long  wooden  beams  elevated  about  18  inches  from  the  ground, 
and  having  their  bungs  uppermost  while  a  small  hole  on  top  of 
the  front  head  of  each  causes  the  circulation  of  air. 

A  large  saving  of  labor  will  be  effected  by  connecting  elevated 
tanks  holding  the  fermented  wort  with  pipes  and  movable  flexible 
11 


162  VINEGAR,   CIDER,   AND   FRUIT-WINES. 

hose  which  will  allow  of  the  rapid  and  easy  filling  of  the  casks. 
The  vinegar  produced  is  siphoned  off  into  inclined  troughs,  which 
deliver  it  to  a  central  underground  tank,  from  which  it  is 
pumped  into  the  storing  tanks. 

Malt  vinegar  generally  contains  a  great  deal  of  mucilaginous 
matter  difficult  to  settle,  preventing  its  keeping,  while  giving 
nourishment  to  vinegar  eels.  It  is  therefore  necessary  to  filter  it, 
and  for  this  purpose  it  is  pumped  into  the  refining  or  rape  ves- 
sels. These  vessels  are  often  filled  with  wood  shavings,  straw,  or 
.spent  tanner's  wood,  but  nothing  acts  so  well  in  producing  by 
filtration  a  clear  bright  vinegar  as  the  stalks  and  skins  of  grapes 
or  raisins  technically  called  "  rape."  Where  there  is  power  and 
a  large  quantity  of  vinegar  is  manufactured,  the  filtering  is  effected 
under  a  considerable  hydrostatic  pressure.  The  rape  is  placed  in 
a  closed  vessel  between  two  false  perforated  bottoms.  A  circuit 
of  pipes  is  connected  at  the  lower  and  upper  part  of  the  vessel, 
and  by  means  of  a  pump  the  vinegar  is  made  to  pass  again  and 
again  through  the  rape. 

This  mode  of  manufacture  is  frequently  effected  by  "  fielding." 
In  this  case,  as  the  term  implies,  the  process  is  conducted  in  the 
open  air.     The  casks  rest  on  strong  frames  1J  feet  high,  being 
supported  by  firm  pillars  of  brick-work  or  wood.     The  operation 
generally  begins  in   spring  and  continues  during  the  summer. 
The  fermented  liquor  is  run  into  the  casks  by  the  bung-holes, 
the  latter  being  left  open  in  dry  and  loosely  covered  with  a  tile 
in  wet  weather.     Gradually  the  alcohol  of  the  "gyle,"  as  the  fer- 
mented liquor  is  called,  becomes  oxidated,  and  acetic  acid  is  pro- 
duced, of  course  simultaneously  affording  vinegar.      The  latter  is 
then  drawn  off  and  transferred  to  the  refining  or  rape  vessels 
where  it  passes  through  the  process  of  filtration  already  described. 
In  some  factories  large  quantities  of  sour  ale  and  beer  are  con- 
verted by  similar  processes  into  vinegar,  but  the  product  is  much 
inferior  to  the  vinegar  made  from  malt-wort.     The  large  amount 
of  nitrogenous  and  other  extractive  substances  which  those  liquids 
contain    undergoes  a  second   or   putrid   fermentation   after  the 
alcohol  has  been  oxidized  into  acetic  acid,  and  in  doing  so  reacts 
upon  the  acid,  leaving  a  liquid  of  a  disagreeable  odor  slightly  re- 
sembling very  stale  beer.     By  the  addition  of  sulphuric  acid  this 


VINEGAR   FROM    VARIOUS   MATERIALS.  163 

second  fermentation  is  postponed  for  some  time,  but  the  vinegar 
has  nevertheless  a  nauseous  smell  which  renders  it  objection- 
able. 


Preparation  of  Vinegar  from  Sugar-Sects. 

The  juice  of  the  sugar-beet  contains  a  considerable  quantity  of 
cane  sugar  and  is  readily  brought  into  alcoholic  fermentation,  so 
that  seemingly  this  root  would  form  a  very  suitable  material  for 
the  fabrication  of  vinegar.  Sugar-beets  contain  on  an  average  12 
per  cent,  of  cane  sugar,  the  latter  yielding,  when  completely  fer- 
mented, a  fluid  containing  about  6  J  per  cent,  by  weight  of  alcohol  ; 
a  fluid  with  this  percentage  of  alcohol  yields  vinegar  with  6  per 
cent,  of  acetic  acid. 

Besides  sugar  the  juice  of  the  beet-root  contains,  however,  a 
large  number  of  other  substances  which  exert  an  influence  upon 
the  course  of  alcoholic  fermentation,  and,  besides  alcohol,  a  large 
quantity  of  fusel  oils  is  formed  so  that  the  alcohol  has  to  be 
thoroughly  rectified  before  it  is  fit  for  use.  The  fermented  beet- 
root juice  itself  has,  however,  a  disagreeable  taste  and  odor,  and 
the  vinegar  prepared  from  it  showing  similar  properties  will  not 
be  fit  for  household  purposes  until  a  remedy  for  these  evils  is 
found.  Numerous  experiments  made  for  the  purpose  of  freeing 
beet-root  vinegar  from  the  substances  which  impart  to  it  the  dis- 
agreeable odor  and  taste  have  given  no  favorable  results;  filtering 
through  charcoal  and  even  distilling  the  vinegar  and  treating  the 
distilled  product  with  strongly  oxidizing  bodies  do  not  produce  the 
desired  effect.  From  these  experiments  it  would  seem  impossible 
to  directly  obtain  from  sugar-beets  vinegar  fit  for  household  use. 

Vinegar  from  Sugar,  Fruits,  and  Berries. 

By  fermenting  sugar  solution  with  pure  yeast  and  pouring  off 
the  clear  alcoholic  fluid,  the  latter  shows  a  slightly  acid  reaction 
(from  succinic  acid),  but  is  not  converted  into  vinegar  even  if 
standing  for  several  weeks  in  the  most  suitable  temperature,  be- 
cause the  vinegar  ferment  is  wanting.  By  adding,  however,  an 
excess  of  yeast  so  that  it  remains  partially  suspended  in  the  fluid, 


164  VINEGAR,    CIDER,    AND    FRUIT- WINES. 

which  can  be  effected  by  the  addition  of  solution  of  gum  or  starch 
past.e,  the  nourishment  for  the  spores  of  the  vinegar  ferment 
reaching  the  fluid  from  the  air  is  provided  and  acetification  takes 
place. 

Cadet-Gassicourt  advises  the  fermentation  together  of  124 
parts  of  sugar,  868  of  water,  and  80  of  yeast,  and  to  filter  after 
one  month.  Or,  according  to  another  formula  :  sugar  245  parts, 
gum  61,  water  2145,  yeast  20.  Allow  to  ferment  at  68°  F. 
Fermentation  begins  the  same  day  and  is  completed  in  1 5. 

Doebereiner  gives  the  following  directions  :  Dissolve  10  Ibs.  of 
sugar  in  180  quarts  of  hot  water,  add  6  Ibs.  of  pulverized  crude 
tartar  (it  dissolves  only  partially),  and  after  cooling  to  77°  F. 
induce  fermentation  by  4J  quarts  of  beer  yeast.  In  about  8 
days,  when  fermentation  is  finished,  add  about  15  quarts  of 
spirits  of  wine  of  at  least  50  per  cent.  Tr.  or  8  quarts  of  alcohol 
of  90  per  cent,  Tr.,  and  bring  the  mixture  into  the  acetifying 
vessel.  This  fluid  would  also  be  suitable  for  the  quick  process. 

For  making  vinegar  on  a  small  scale  for  domestic  use,  brown 
sugar  with  water  alone,  or  sugar  with  raisins,  currants,  and  espe- 
cially ripe  gooseberries,  may  be  used.  These  should  be  mixed  in 
the  proportions  which  would  give  a  strong  wine,  put  into  a  small 
barrel  filled  to  about  three-fourths  of  its  capacity,  with  the  bung- 
hole  very  loosely  stopped.  Some  yeast  should  be  put  in  and  the 
barrel  set  in  the  sun  in  summer  or  a  little  way  from  the  fire  in 
winter,  and  fermentation  will  soon  begin.  This  should  be  kept 
up  constantly,  but  moderately,  till  the  taste  and  smell  indicate 
that  the  vinegar  is  complete.  It  should  then  be  poured  off  clear, 
and  bottled  carefully.  It  will  keep  much  better  if  it  is  boiled 
for  a  minute,  cooled,  and  strained  before  bottling. 

With  the  exception  of  apples  and  pears,  the  different  varieties 
of  fruit  cannot  be  had  in  such  abundance  as  that  they  could  be 
used  for  the  manufacture  of  vinegar  on  a  large  scale,  and  hence 
only  a  brief  description  of  their  utilization  for  that  purpose  will 
be  given. 

It  is  characteristic  of  most  of  our  varieties  of  fruits,  and  espe- 
cially of  berries,  that  in  proportion  to  their  content  of  sugar  they 
have  a  much  greater  content  of  free  acids  than  grapes,  and  this 
circumstance  must  be  taken  into  consideration,  as  otherwise  wine 


VINEGAR   FROM   VARIOUS   MATERIALS.  165 

would  be  obtained  which  contains  a  considerable  quantity  of 
unfermented  sugar.  The  following  table  shows  the  average 
content  of  sugar  and  free  acid  in  the  most  common  varieties 
of  fruits  : — 


Free  acid  calculated 

Sugar.                   as  malic  acid. 

Cherries 

.     10.00 

— 

Apples     .... 

.       6.25  to  13.99 

0.691 

Pears       .... 

.       8.78 

— 

6.40 

2.147 

Strawberries    . 

.       5.09  to  11.31 

1.363 

Gooseberries    . 

.       6.93 

1.603 

Bilberries 

.       5.78 

1.341 

4.02 

1.484 

Blackberries    . 

4.44 

1.188 

According  to  the  above  table,  currants,  gooseberries,  raspber- 
ries, etc.,  contain  on  an  average  scarcely  6  per  cent,  of  sugar,  and 
consequently  their  juice,  after  complete  fermentation,  would  give 
a  fluid  with  about  3  per  cent,  of  alcohol,  from  which  vinegar 
with  about  2J  per  cent,  of  acetic  acid  could  be  obtained.  Such 
vinegar  being,  however,  too  weak,  those  berries  would  not  seem 
suitable  for  the  direct  preparation  of  vinegar.  Moreover,  the 
complete  fermentation  of  the  juice  of  most  berries  is  very  diffi- 
cult, the  free  acids,  among  which  malic  acid  preponderates,  ex- 
erting an  injurious  influence  upon  the  progress  of  fermentation. 

Vinous  .fluids  of  an  agreeable  taste  can,  however,  be  prepared 
from  berries,  and  from  them  an  aromatic  and  finely  flavored 
vinegar,  by  decreasing  the  content  of  acid  in  the  juice  and  in- 
creasing that  of  sugar.  The  juice  of  currants,  as  seen  from  the 
above  table,  contains  in  round  numbers  6  per  cent,  of  sugar  and 
2  per  cent,  of  malic  acid.  By  diluting  this  juice  with  an  equal 
volume  of  water  a  fluid  containing  3  per  cent,  of  sugar  and  1  per 
cent,  of  acid  is  obtained,  and  the  content  of  the  former  can  be  in- 
creased at  will  by  the  direct  addition  of  sugar. 

By  compounding,  for  instance,  100  quarts  of  currant  juice  with 
100  quarts  of  water  and  adding  34  Ibs.  of  sugar,  the  resulting 
fluid  contains  about  20  per  cent,  of  sugar  and  after  complete  fer- 
mentation gives  a  fluid  with  about  9.5  per  cent,  of  alcohol,  which 
yields  vinegar  of  nearly  9  per  cent,  strength.  The  taste  of  this 


166  VINEGAR,    CIDER,    AXD   FRUIT-WINES. 

vinegar  is,  however,  stronger  and  more  agreeably  acid  than  that 
of  vinegar  from  alcohol,  it  containing  besides  acetic  acid  about  1 
per  cent,  of  malic  acid.  Moreover,  vinegar  obtained  from  ber- 
ries contains  a  certain  quantity  of  extractive  substances  and  odor- 
iferous products  of  fermentation,  so  that  it  possesses  an  agreeable 
bouquet  and  thus  appears  more  valuable  than  the  ordinary  pro- 
duct. 

In  many  regions  bilberries  grow  in  abundance  and  can  be 
bought  very  cheap.  Treated  in  the  above  manner  they  yield  an 
excellent  vinegar,  possessing,  however,  a  somewhat  harsh  by-taste, 
due  to  the  tannin  contained  in  the  berries.  The  latter  can  be  re- 
moved from  the  fermented  fluid  before  using  it  for  the  prepara- 
tion of  vinegar  by  compounding  it  when  quite  clear  with  gelatine 
solution  or  fresh  white  of  egg,  both  forming  insoluble  combina- 
tions with  the  tannin,  which  separate  in  the  form  of  flakes. 

In  regard  to  the  preparation  of  vinegar  from  berries  it  remains 
to  be  remarked  that,  after  pressing  the  bruised  berries,  the  juice 
is  compounded  with  water  and  sugar  and  at  once  brought  into 
fermentation  by  the  addition  of  yeast  (best  fresh  wine-yeast,  or 
if  this  be  wanting,  compressed  yeast  divided  in  water).  Fermen- 
tation should  take  place  at  quite  a  high  temperature,  68°  to  72° 
F.  The  separated  yeast  is  carefully  removed  from  the  fermented 
liquid  and  the  latter  stored  away  in  barrels  kept  constantly  filled 
up  to  the  bung  or  at  once  used  for  the  preparation  of  vinegar. 
By  converting  fruit-wine  into  vinegar  by  means  of  the  vinegar 
ferment  floating  upon  the  fluid  a  much  finer  product  is  obtained 
than  by  the  quick  process. 

Cider  Vinegar. 

Cider,  as  is  well  known,  is  the  sparkling  liquid  which  is  pre- 
pared by  fermenting  the  juice  of  apples  ground  in  a  mill.  The 
manufacture  of  cider  will  be  described  in  another  portion  of  this 
work,  and,  hence,  only  its  utilization  for  the  preparation  of  vine- 
gar will  be  given  here. 

The  preparation  of  vinegar  from  good  cider  is  not  difficult,  the 
process  of  acetification  by  means  of  the  vinegar  ferment  floating 
upon  the  surface  yielding  an  aromatic  product  of  a  fine  flavor 


VINEGAR    FROM    VARIOUS   MATERIALS.  167 

which  is  nearly  of  as  good  a  quality  as  wine  vinegar.  On  ac- 
count of  its  content  of  malic  acid,  the  vinegar  is  more  acid  than 
ordinary  vinegar  with  the  same  content  of  acetic  acid.  But  in 
order  to  produce  cider  vinegar  of  the  first  quality  one  must  have 
good  cider ;  vinegar  made  of  watered  cider  will  be  thin  and  weak. 
S.  E.  Todd*  describes  a  simple  contrivance  for  making  cider 
vinegar.  A  kind  of  cupboard  is  made  of  inch  boards  about  3J 
feet  high  by  seven  feet  long.  Inside  of  this  box  fit  shelves  about 
3J  inches  apart.  On  the  upper  side  of  these  shelves  gouge  out 
channels  running  nearly  from  one  end  to  the  other  until  the 
upper  side  is  covered  with  zigzag  grooves  running  from  end  to 
end.  There  should  be  cleats  fastened  to  the  under  side  of  each 
shelf  to  prevent  it  from  warping ;  and  the  cleats  should  be  put 
on  with  screws.  The  channel  must  be  made  slightly  slanting. 
The  top  shelf  must  slant  so  as  to  be  about  two  inches  lower  than 
the  other  side,  and  the  shelf  below  it  should  slant  about  two 
inches  in  the  opposite  direction.  By  this  arrangement  a  long 
zigzag  channel  is  made  for  the  liquid  to  flow  in.  At  its  end,  in 
the  upper  shelf,  bore  a  hole  through  so  that  the  vinegar  may  drop 
to  the  next  shelf  and  traverse  the  channel.  Thus  it  continues  to 
flow  from  end  to  end  until  it  has  reached  the  end  of  the  channel 

• 

in  the  lower  shelf,  when  it  falls  into  a  receptacle.  When  com- 
mencing to  make  vinegar  in  this  manner,  place  the  apparatus  in 
some  small  room  and  keep  the  temperature  about  90°  or  95°  F. 
Have  a  barrel,  or  tub,  or  hogshead  placed  a  little  higher  than  the 
box  and  near  the  end  where  the  first  channel  commences  in  the 
top  shelf.  In  this  barrel  have  a  faucet  so  that  you  can  regulate 
the  amount  of  cider  which  it  is  designed  to  have  flow  in  the 
channel.  The  aim  should  be  to  keep  a  very  small  stream  moving 
gently  through  the  apparatus,  aifording  every  drop  ample  time 
and  opportunity  to  absorb  the  desired  amount  of  oxygen  before 
the  liquid  reaches  the  end  of  the  channel  in  the  last  shelf.  A 
few  gallons,  or  a  half  barrel  of  good  strong  vinegar  should  be 
run  through  first,  so  that  the  shelves  will  be  well  acidulated  be- 
fore letting  other  mixtures  run  through.  It  is  a  good  idea  to 
add  one-third  or  one-fourth  of  good  vinegar  to  any  mixture  of 

*  "  The  Apple  Guitarist."     New  York,  1871. 


168  VINEGAR,   CIDER,   AND   FRUIT-WINES. 

eider  before  allowing  it  to  run  through  the  apparatus.  Open  the 
faueet  so  that  a  stream  not  larger  than  a  straw  shall  fall  into  the 
channel  of  the  top  shelf.  As  it  falls  through  the  last  hole  into 
the  barrel  placed  below  the  apparatus,  the  cider  will  have  changed 
to  strong  and  pure  vinegar.  When  once  started  the  process  must 
continue  night  and  day  until  the  supply  fails.  In  warm  weather 
no  fire  will  be  required  in  the  vinegar  apartment,  which  should  be 
well  supplied  with  fresh  air  to  facilitate  oxidation.  If  the  liquid 
is  allowed  to  flow  too  rapidly,  it  will  not  have  time  to  oxidize. 

Vinegar  from  apple-pomace. — After  the  cider  has  been  ex- 
tracted and  the  cheese  removed  from  the  press,  the  pomace  may 
be  placed  in  a  pile  upon  a  suitably-constructed  platform  and  al- 
lowed to  ferment.  In  the  course  of  a  few  days  considerable  heat 
will  be  evolved  ;  at  this  time  a  few  pails  of  warm  water  (not  boil- 
ing) should  be  poured  upon  the  pile  and  in  the  course  of  twenty- 
four  hours  the  pomace  will  be  in  a  proper  condition  to  grind.  It 
should  then  be  run  through  a  grater-mill  and  relaid  upon  the  press 
in  a  cheese  in  the  same  manner  as  originally  laid  in  cider  making, 
when  it  may  be  subjected  to  heavy  pressure  until  the  liquid  con- 
tained in  the  cheese  be  extracted.  This  liquid  may  then  be  ex- 
posed in  shallow  open  casks  in  a  warm  room  and  in  a  short  time 
will  be  found  good  vinegar.  Or,  the  liquid  may  be  immediately 
passed  through  a  generator. 


CHAPTER  XVII. 

PREPARATION    OF   VINEGAR  SPECIALTIES. 

THESE  specialties  may  be  divided  into  two  groups :  into  those 
with  a  specific  odor,  and  those  with  a  specific  odor  and  taste.  As 
an  example  for  both  kinds  we  will  take  tarragon  (dragon's-wort) 
vinegar.  If  it  is  prepared  by  simply  dissolving  in  the  vinegar 
the  volatile  oil  of  dragon's-wort  (Artemisia  dracunculus),  obtained 
by  distillation  with  water,  the  product  is  simply  perfumed  vinegar, 
the  odor  of  the  volatile  oil  being  mixed  with  that  of  the  acetic 
acid,  but  the  taste  remains  unchanged.  If,  however,  the  fresh 


PREPARATION   OF   VINEGAR   SPECIALTIES.  169 

leaves  of  the  plant  are  macerated  with  vinegar,  not  only  the  vola- 
tile oil  is  dissolved  but  also  certain  extractive  substances  peculiar 
to  this  plant,  and  the  taste  of  the  vinegar  is  also  changed ;  the 
product  in  this  case  being  aromatized  vinegar. 

By  dissolving  in  vinegar  oil  of  roses  or  rosewater  (perfumed) 
rose  vinegar  is  obtained  ;  by  treating  raspberries  with  vinegar  the 
latter  absorbs  not  only  the  odoriferous  substances  of  the  rasp- 
berries, but  also  the  non-odoriferous  extractive  substances,  and  the 
product  is  aromatized  vinegar. 

By  skillful  manipulation  every  volatile  oil  can  be  dissolved  in 
vinegar,  and  consequently  as  many  different  varieties  of  perfumed 
vinegar  can  be  prepared  as  there  are  volatile  oils.  In  fact  per- 
fumers prepare  a  number  of  such  varieties  which  contain  one  or 
more  volatile  oils  whose  odors  harmonize  and  are  sold  as  volatile 
spirit  of  vinegar,  fumigating  vinegar,  etc.  Such  vinegars  can  be 
prepared  in  various  ways,  the  finest  odors  being,  however,  ob- 
tained by  distilling  the  fresh  parts  of  the  plants  with  water  and 
mixing  the  distillate,  which  actually  represents  a  solution  of  the 
volatile  oil  in  water,  with  strong  vinegar.  The  finest  rose  vinegar, 
orange  blossom  vinegar,  etc.,  are  prepared  in  this  manner. 

For  this  rather  tedious  process  of  preparing  perfumed  vinegar, 
the  one  in  which  freshly  prepared  volatile  oils  are  used  may  be 
advantageously  substituted.  To  be  sure  the  volatile  oils  dissolve 
only  sparingly  in  vinegar,  but  sufficiently  so  to  impart  their  char- 
acteristic' odor  to  it.  By  using  an  excess  of  volatile  oil  it  does 
not  dissolve,  but  distributes  itself  in  fine  drops  throughout  the 
vinegar,  rendering  the  latter  opalescent,  so  that  fining  with  tannin 
and  isinglass  is  necessary  to  make  it  bright  again. 

This  evil  can  be  avoided  by  a  simple  manipulation  which  is 
based  upon  the  fact  that  a  body  dissolving  with  difficulty  dissolves 
the  more  readily  the  greater  the  surface  it  offers  to  the  solvent. 

Prepare  glass-powder  as  fine  as  the  best  wheat  flour  by  heating 
pieces  of  glass,  throwing  them  into  cold  water,  and  pulverizing 
and  elutriating  in  a  mortar.  By  the  sudden  cooling  the  glass 
becomes  so  brittle  that  it  can  be  readily  converted  into  a  fine 
powder.  Bring  a  suitable  quantity  of  this  powder  into  a  porcelain 
dish  and  drop  volatile  oil  upon  it  with  constant  rubbing  until  it 
is  uniformly  moistened.  Pour  the  vinegar  to  be  perfumed  upon 


170  VINEGAR,    CIDER,    AND    FRUIT-WINES. 

this  glass  powder  and  stir  gently  with  the  pestle.  The  fluid  is 
then  poured  into  the  barrel  intended  for  the  reception  of  the  per- 
fumed vinegar  and  a  fresh  quantity  of  vinegar  poured  upon  the 
glass-powder,  this  being  continued  until  all  the  glass-powder  has 
been  brought  into  the  barrel  by  stirring  and  pouring  over  fresh 
vinegar.  The  barrel  is  then  entirely  filled  with  vinegar,  and  after 
'being  closed,  rolled  in  order  to  effect  a  uniform  mixture  of  its 
contents.  It  is  then  allowed  to  rest  for  a  few  days  for  the  glass- 
powder  to  settle.  The  entirely  clear  perfumed  vinegar  is  then 
drawn  off  into  bottles,  which  are  to  be  kept  in  a  dark  cool  room, 
the  odor  of  the  volatile  oil  being  injured  by  light  and  heat. 

For  the  preparation  of  volatile  fumigating  or  toilet  vinegars  it 
is  best  to  dissolve  the  volatile  oils  in  uncolored  vinegar  prepared 
from  alcoholic  liquid.  Where  the  remaining  of  a  small  residue 
after  the  volatilization  of  the  perfumed  vinegar  is  of  no  impoft- 
tancc,  pulverized  sugar  may  be  substituted  for  the  glass  powder, 
as  it  acts  in  the  same  manner ;  the  only  difference  is  that  the 
glass-powder  being  an  insoluble  body  falls  to  the  bottom  of  the 
barrel,  while  the  sugar  dissolves  together  with  the  volatile  oil  in 
the  vinegar. 

By  the  above-described  process  perfumed  vinegars  with  the 
odor  of  dragon's- wort,  peppermint,  anise,  rose,  etc.  etc.,  may  be  pre- 
pared, and  by  a  suitable  mixture  of  those  whose  odors  harmonize 
a  great  number  of  fumigating  and  toilet  vinegars. 

The  preparation  of  aromatized  vinegars  by  means  of  the  extrac- 
tive substances  of  plants  is  very  simple.  The  parts  of  plants  to 
be  extracted  are  placed  in  a  suitable  vessel,  a  barrel  or  large  flask, 
and  after  pouring  vinegar  over  them  and  closing  the  vessel,  are 
allowed  to  rest  for  a  few  weeks  in  a  moderately  warm  room.  In 
rase  glass  vessels  are  used  they  have  to  be  kept  in  a  dark  room, 
light  exerting  an  injurious  influence  upon  the  odors.  The  vege- 
table substances  used  for  aromatizing  vinegar  containing,  as  a 
rule,  a  large  quantity  of  water,  strong  vinegar  (with  10  to  11  per 
cent,  acetic  acid)  should  be  used. 

In  the  following  a  few  formulae  for  toilet  and  table  vinegars 
are  given  : — 


PREPARATION   OF   VINEGAR   SPECIALTIES.  171 

Toilet  Vinegars. 

Mohr's  volatile  spirits  of  vinegar.  Equal  parts  of  acetic  acid 
and  acetic  ether  perfumed  with  a  few  drops  of  oil  of  cloves. 

Aromatic  vinegar.  Concentrated  acetic  acid  8  ounces,  oil  of 
lavender  2  drachms,  oils  of  rosemary  and  cloves  each  1  drachm, 
oil  of  camphor  1  ounce. 

First  dissolve  the  bruised  camphor  in  the  acetic  acid,  then  add 
the  perfumes ;  after  standing  for  a  few  days  with  occasional  agi- 
tation it  is  strained  and  is  then  ready  for  use. 

Henry's  vinegar.  Dried  leaves  of  rosemary,  rue,  wormwood, 
sage,  mint,  and  lavender  flowers  each  1  ounce,  bruised  nutmeg, 
cloves,  angelica  root  and  camphor,  each  J  ounce,  alcohol  (rectified) 
8  ounces,  concentrated  acetic  acid  32  ounces. 

Macerate  the  materials  for  a  day  in  the  alcohol ;  then  add  the 
acid  and  digest  for  a  week  longer  at  a  temperature  of  about  59°  F. 
Finally  press  out  the  now  aromatized  vinegar  and  filter  it. 

Vinaigre  des  quatre  voleurs.  Fresh  taps  of  common  wormwood, 
Roman  wormwood,  rosemary,  sage,  mint  and  rue  each  f  ounce, 
lavender  flowers  1  ounce,  garlic,  calamus  aromaticus,  cinnamon, 
cloves,  and  nutmeg  each  1  drachm,  camphor  J  ounce,  alcohol  or 
brandy  1  ounce,  strong  vinegar  4  pints. 

Digest  all  the  materials,  except  the  camphor  and  spirit,  in  a 
closely  covered  vessel,  for  a  fortnight,  at  summer  heat ;  then 
express  and  filter  the  vinegar  produced  and  add  the  camphor 
previously  dissolved  in  the  brandy  or  alcohol. 

Hygienic  or  preventive  vinegar.  Brandy  1  pint,  oils  of  cloves 
and  lavender  each  1  drachm,  oil  of  marjoram  J  drachm,  gum 
benzoin  1  ounce. 

Macerate  these  together  for  a  few  hours,  then  add  2  pints  of 
brown  vinegar  and  strain  or  filter. 

Cosmetic  vinegar.  Alcohol  1  quart,  gum  benzoin  3  ounces, 
concentrated  aromatic  vinegar  1  ounce,  balsam  of  Peru  1  ounce, 
oil  of  neroli  1  drachm,  oil  of  nutmeg  J  drachm. 


172  VINEGAR,    CIDER,    AXD   FRUIT- WINES. 

Table  Vinegars. 

Anise  vinegar.  Convert  into  a  coarse  powder  anise  seed  5 
parts,  caraway  seed  §,  fennel  and  coriander  seed  each  J,  pour  5 
parts  of  alcohol  and  45  parts  of  strong  vinegar  over  the  powders, 
close  the  vessel  air-tight  and  let  the  whole  digest  in  a  warm  place 
for  6  to  8  days,  shaking  frequently.  Then  strain  the  liquid  off, 
press  out  the  residue,  filter  the  vinegar,  and  put  it  up  in  bottles. 

Anchovy  vinegar.  Reduce  1  pound  of  boned  anchovies  to  a 
pulp  in  a  mortar  and  pass  the  mass  through  a  hair-sieve.  The 
bones  and  parts  which  do  not  pass  through  the  sieve  are  boiled 
for  15  minutes  in  a  pint  of  water  and  strained.  To  the  strained 
liquor  add  2J  ounces  of  salt  and  the  same  quantity  of  flour 
together  with  the  pulped  anchovies,  and  allow  the  whole  to  sim- 
mer for  3  or  4  minutes ;  as  soon  as  the  mixture  is  cold  add  J  pint 
of  strong  vinegar. 

Tarragon  vinegar.  Pick  the  young  tender  leaves  of  dragon's- 
wort  (Artemisia  dracunculus)  when  the  first  flower-buds  appear. 
Bruise  the  leaves,  place  them  in  a  suitable  vessel,  pour  good  wine- 
vinegar  over  them,  and  let  the  whole  stand  for  a  few  days.  Then 
strain  the  vinegar  through  a  cloth,  filter  and  bottle.  The  bottles 
must  be  filled  entirely  full,  as  otherwise  the  vinegar  will  not  keep. 

Compound  tarragon  vinegar. — Comminute  leaves  of  dragon's- 
wort  100  parts,  common  bean  leaves  25,  leaves  of  basil  and  mar- 
joram each  12J,  bay  leaves  and  orris  root  each  25,  cloves  3J,  cinna- 
mon 6J,  and  shallots  25.  Put  all  in  a  suitable  vessel,  pour  700 
to  750  parts  of  pure,  strong  vinegar  over  it,  let  it  stand  in  a  warm 
place  and  digest  5  or  6  days,  frequently  agitating  it.  Then  strain 
the  vinegar  through  linen,  press  out  the  residue,  add  25  parts  of 
alcohol,  and  filter.  Keep  the  vinegar  in  well-corked  bottles  in 
a  cool,  dark  place. 

Effervescing  vinegar. — Dissolve  500  parts  of  loaf  sugar  in  5000 
parts  of  water,  add  lemon  juice  and  rind  cut  up  in  the  proportion 
of  1  lemon  to  1  lb.  of  sugar,  1J  parts  of  the  best  cinnamon,  and 
12  parts  of  beer  yeast  thoroughly  washed.  Place  the  whole  in  a 
barrel,  and  after  agitating  it  thoroughly  let  it  ferment  at  a  tem- 
perature of  55°  to  60°  F.  When  fermentation  has  ceased  the 
vinous  fluid  is  strained  and  mixed  with  1000  parts  of  best  wine- 


PREPARATION   OF   VINEGAR   SPECIALTIES.  173 

vinegar,  previously  boiled  up,  and  yeast  in  the  proportion  of  1 
spoonful  to  5  Ibs.  of  sugar.  The  fluid  is  then  distributed  in  sev- 
eral earthenware  pots  and  exposed  to  a  temperature  of  77°  to 
88°  F.  until  it  has  been  converted  into  strong  vinegar.  This, 
while  remaining  in  the  pots,  is  mixed  with  200  parts  of  French 
brandy  and  after  two  days  bottled  in  small  bottles.  To  each 
pound  of  this  vinegar  are  added  4  part  of  crystallized  tartaric 
acid,  pulverized,  and  J  part  of  bicarbonate  of  soda.  The  bottles, 
as  soon  as  the  respective  portion  of  the  mixture  has  been  added 
to  each,  must  be  corked  as  quickly  as  possible  and  then  stored 
in  a  cool  place. 

Herb  vinegar. — Chop  fine  the  leaves  of  marjoram  and  thyme 
each  13J  parts,  common  bean  leaves  6J,  leaves  of  mint,  basil,  and 
celery  each  3J,  and  fresh  shallots  1J.  Pour  600  or  700  parts  of 
good  vinegar  over  the  herbs  and  treat  in  the  same  manner  as  given 
for  compound  tarragon  vinegar. 

Pine-apple  vinegar.  —  This  excellent  vinegar  soon  loses  its 
flavor,  and  it  is  therefore  best  to  prepare  a  small  quantity  at 
a  time  and  keep  in  bottles  closed  air-tight. 

Bruise  the  slices  of  pine-apple  and  pour  over  them  a  consider- 
able quantity  of  vinegar.  Close  the  vessel  air-tight  and  let  it 
stand  12  hours ;  then  pour  off  the  vinegar  and  filter. 

Celery  vinegar. — Celery  seed  4J  ozs.,  vinegar  1  pint.  Digest 
14  days;  filter. 

Clove  vinegar. — Cloves  3J  ozs.,  vinegar  1  pint.  Digest  7  days 
and  strain. 

Mustard  vinegar. — Black  mustard  seeds  2  ozs.,  vinegar  1  pint. 
Digest  one  week  and  filter. 

Lovage  vinegar. — Lovage  root  2  ozs.,  lovage  seed  1  oz.,  vinegar 
10  ozs.  Digest  one  week  and  filter. 

Preparation  of  Acetic  Ether. 

Among  the  numerous  combinations  into  which  acetic  acid 
enters  with  other  bodies,  acetic  ether  is  of  special  value  for  the 
vinegar  manufacturer,  it  being  directly  used  in  the  fabrication  of 
vinegar.  It  is  readily  formed  on  alcohol  coming  in  contact  with 
acetic  acid,  and  it  would  seem  with  special  ease  when  the  latter 


174  VIXKOAII,  niJEii,  AND  FRUIT-WINKS. 

in  in  a  nawynt  «fcitc.  Hence  a  «*rnall  quantity  of  it  i«  found  in 
nearly  all  red  wine*  not  prepared  by  fermentation  in  closed  vat*, 
it*  presence  being  din?  to  the  formation  of  a  small  quantity  of 
o/ictie  acid  from  the  alcohol,  which  immediately  combines  with 
the  ethyl  oxide  or  ether. 

In  vinegar  containing  a  small  quantity  of  unchanged  alcohol 
Home  acetic  either  formal  by  the  conversion  of  this  alcohol  into 
acetic  acid  is  alwayH  present,  and  imparting  a  very  delicate  and 
agreeable  tjoiiqiict  to  the  vinegar,  it  i-  recommended  to  conduct 
the  fabrication  of  a  fine  article  so  that  it  contains  a  small  quan- 
tity of  it. 

It  IH,  however,  not  absolutely  necessary  to  leave  a  small  quan- 
tity of  alcohol  in  the  vinegar,  as  either  acetic  c-ther  or  alcohol 
can  U;  directly  added  to  the  finished  product.  But  in  both  casen 
the  vinegar  haw  to  be  Htored  for  neveral  weeks;  in  the  first, 'for 
the  purpose  of  harnioni/inc  the*  cxlors  of  acetic  ether  and  of  acetic 
acid,  and  in  the  latter,  for  the?  formation  of  acetic  ether. 

A  fluid  quite  rich  in  awtie  ctlrcr  and  very  suitable  for  impart- 
ing bouquet  to  table  vinegar  can  in  a  very  simple  manner  be 
prepnred  by  mixing  in  a  flask  one  volume  of  highly  concentrated 
acetic  acid  with  two  volumes  of  95  or  !KJ  per  cent,  alcohol,  and  after 
cloning  flic  flask  air-tight,  allowing  the  fluid  to  stand  in  a  warm 
room  for  several  months.  The  resulting  fluid  is  us(*l  as  an  addi- 
tion to  the  vinegar  whose  odor  is  to  be  improved.  Entirely  pure 
acetic  ether  is  best  prepared  in  the  following  mariner:  To  9  parts 
of  concentrated  sulphuric  acid  .*5.(J  parts  of  commercial  absolute 
alcohol  are  added  by  means  of  a  funnel  tube  which  reaches  to  the 
bottom  of  the  vessel,  at  the  same  time  keeping  the  liquid  well 
stirred.  After  standing  for  24  hours  this  mixture  is  added  to  o* 
parts  of  sodium  acetate  which  has  previously  been  fused  and 
broken  into  small  fragments,  and  after  12  hours  the  mixture  is 
distilled,  Thus  (>  parts  of  pure  acetic  ether  are  obtained,  from 
which,  by  rectifying  over  calcium  chloride,  all  traces  of  water  arc 
removed. 

Pure  acetic  ether  or  ethyl  acetate  has  the  composition  ,?\  ,8M 

^y2*V  '   .) 

and  represents  a  fluid  clear  as  water  with  an  agreeable  but  stupe- 
fying odor.     Its  specific  gravity  is  ().!).'J2  and  it  boils  at  105.2°  F. 


FABRICATION   OF   WINE-VINEGAR.  175 

On  account  of  its  volatility  it  has  to  be  kept  in  well-stoppered 
bottles,  best  in  a  cool  place. 

About  3J  to  7  ozs.  of  acetic  ether  suffice  for  the  improvement 
of  the  odor  of  100  quarts  of  vinegar. 


CHAPTER  XVIII. 

FABRICATION   OF    WINE-VINEGAR. 

WINE  being  an  alcoholic  liquid  with  a  content  of  alcohol  vary- 
ing between  6  and  14  per  cent,  evidently  furnishes  an  excellent 
material  for  the  fabrication  of  vinegar.  However,  only  in  rare 
cases  wine  still  palatable  is  used,  the  chief  supply  for  this  pur- 
pose being  derived  from  wine,  especially  wines  with  from  8  to  9 
per  cent,  of  alcohol,  which  have  deteriorated  on  account  of  incor- 
rect treatment  in  the  cellar  and  consequently  have  become  unsal- 
able as  a  beverage.  Stronger  wines  are  less  difficult  to  keep  in 
the  cellar,  and  in  case  they  should  spoil  and  become  unfit  for  a 
beverage  can  be  more  profitably  utilized  in  the  fabrication  of 
cognac. 

Wine-vinegar  differs  from  the  ordinary  varieties  not  only  in 
containing,  besides  peculiar  extractive  substances,  tartaric  acid, 
tartrates,  etc.,  but  also  in  possessing  a  very  agreeable  odor  due  to 
the  change  of  the  odoriferous  substances  contained  in  the  wine. 

In  wine-growing  countries  large  sums  are  annually  lost  on  ac- 
count of  spoiled  wine,  the  latter  being  generally  sold  at  a  very 
low  price  to  vinegar  factories,  where  it  is  worked  as  alcoholic 
liquid  either  by  itself  or  in  connection  with  other  materials.  On 
account  of  the  process  used  the  quality  of  the  resulting  product 
is  not  what  it  should  be,  the  wine  being  worked  into  vinegar 
either  in  quick -process  generators  or  by  a  method  to  be  described 
later  on,  to  which  the  term  "  vinegar  boiling"  may  be  applied. 
Vinegar,  to  be  sure,  is  obtained  in  both  cases,  but  the  product  is 
not  especially  fine,  because  wine-vinegar  of  an  excellent  quality 
can  only  be  prepared  by  not  allowing  the  process  of  oxidation  to 


176  VINEGAR,   CIDER,    AND   FRUIT-WINES. 

proceed  too  rapidly  and  preventing  the  appearance  of  other  fer- 
menting processes  besides  that  of  acetous  fermentation. 

Every  vinegar,  no  matter  from  what  kind  of  raw  material  it 
may  have  been  prepared,  acquires  a  finer  odor  by  storing ;  and 
this  is  especially  the  case  with  wine-vinegar,  which,  when  freshly 
made,  has  not  an  agreeable,  but  rather  an  unpleasant  and  stupe- 
fying, odor.  By  storing  such  vinegar  in  an  apartment  in  which 
the  ordinary  temperature  of  a  living  room  prevails,  it  acquires  in 
the  course  of  a  few  weeks  an  agreeable  bouquet,  which,  similar  to 
that  of  wine,  increases  in  fineness  for  a  certain  time,  and  can  be 
preserved  unchanged  for  a  long  time  by  excluding  the  air  and 
storing  in  a  cool  room  ;  finally,  however,  it  decreases. 

Drinkable  wine  can  be  profitably  used  for  the  manufacture  of 
vinegar  only  in  countries  where,  in  consequence  of  a  very  abun- 
dant harvest,  it  can  be  bought  at  astonishingly  low  prices,  as  for 
instance  in  Hungary,  where  a  hectoliter  (22  imp.  gallons)  of  ordi- 
nary wine  can  in  some  seasons  be  bought  for  a  few  dollars. 
Otherwise  only  spoiled  or  "  sick"  wines,  which  are  cheap  enough, 
are  used  for  the  purpose. 

The  term  "  sick"  is  generally  applied  to  wines  in  which  altera- 
tions take  place  by  the  activity  of  a  certain  ferment,  which  when 
progressed  to  a  certain  degree  renders  the  wine  unfit  for  a  beve- 
rage. "Turning  sour"  is,  for  instance,  a  sickness  frequently 
occurring  in  wines  poor  in  alcohol ;  it  manifests  itself  by  the 
development  of  large  masses  of  a  certain  ferment  which  quickly 
destroys  the  tartaric  acid  contained  in  the  wine.  Another  sickness 
chiefly  occurring  in  red  wines  is  the  so-called  "turning  bitter," 
the  wine,  as  the  term  implies,  acquiring  in  a  short  time  by  the 
action  of  a  peculiar  ferment  such  a  disagreeable  bitter  taste  as  to 
render  it  absolutely  unfit  for  drinking.  Such  wine  cannot  be 
used  even  for  vinegar,  the  latter  showing  the  same  disagreeable 
bitter  taste.  Wine  attacked  by  what  is  called  "lactic  acid  de- 
generation" can  be  used  for  the  manufacture  of  vinegar,  but 
yields  a"  product  of  very  inferior  quality,  because  on  the  wine 
being  subjected  to  acetous  fermentation  the  lactic  acid  contained 
in  it  is  readily  converted  into  butyric  acid,  which  possesses  a  dis- 
agreeable rancid  odor  completely  killing  the  pleasant  aroma  of 
the  bouquet  substances.  There  only  remains  as  a  material 


FABRICATION   OF    WIXE-VIXEGAR.  177 

actually  fit  for  the  preparation  of  wine-vinegar,  wine  attacked  by 
"  acetous  degeneration ,"  i.  e.,  wine  already  so  much  changed  by 
the  vinegar  ferment  as  to  render  it  unfit  for  a  beverage,  and, 
further,  wine  which  though  not  sick  is  unsound,  showing  a  taste 
of  mold,  of  the  barrel,  etc. 

Wine  no  longer  young  and  not  overly  rich  in  alcohol  is  espe- 
cially adapted  for  the  nourishment  of  the  vinegar  ferment.  Such 
wine  need  only  be  exposed  to  a  somewhat  higher  temperature  in 
order  to  induce  acetous  fermentation,  which,  if  not  disturbed  in  its 
progress,  will  finally  convert  all  the  alcohol  in  the  wine  to  acetic 
acid. 

It  may  here  be  remarked  that  every  normal  wine  always  con- 
tains, besides  the  bodies  belonging  to  the  series  of  fatty  acids, 
acetic  acid,  though  only  about  a  few  ten-thousandths  of  its  weight. 
By  storing  the  wine,  the  acetic  acid  does  not  increase,  but  becomes 
rather  less,  it  being  consumed  in  the  formation  of  compound 
ethers.      Hence,  a  rapid  increase  of  the  acetic  acid  is  an  indica- 
tion of  the  wine  being  attacked  by  acetous  degeneration,  and  if 
examined   with    the   microscope   the   ferment   characteristic   of 
acetous   fermentation   will   be  found   upon    its   surface.     Many 
remedies  have  been  proposed  for  the  cure  of  acetous  degenera- 
tion, but  none  of  them  is  of  any  value  except  heating  the  wine  to 
about  140°  F.,  whereby  the  vinegar  ferment  is  killed  and  the 
further   progress   of  acetous   fermentation   checked.     There   is, 
however,  absolutely  no  remedy  for  the  removal  or  neutralization 
of  the  acetic  acid  already  present  in  the  wine.     Heating  the  wine 
can  only  be  recommended  when  the  evil  has  been  in  existence 
but  a  short   time  and    the    increase  of  acetic  acid  can  be  de- 
tected only  by  a  very  sensitive  tongue.    Mixing  wine  attacked  by 
acetous  degeneration  with  sound  wine  in  order  to  cover  up  the 
acid  taste  is  especially  unadvisable ;  nothing  can  be  attained  by 
it  except  a  short  delay  in  the  reappearance  of  the  evil  and  the 
transmission  of  the  infection  to  the  sound  wine.     There  are  but 
two  ways  in  which  wine  attacked  by  acetous  degeneration  can  be 
in  anywise  profitably  utilized  :  by  employing  it  for  the  preparation 
of  cognac  or  converting  it  into  wine- vinegar.     For  the  first  a  dis- 
tilling apparatus  is  required,  and,  consequently,  cannot  be  effected 
12 


178  VINEGAR,   CIDER,   AND   FRUIT-WINES. 

by  every  wine-grower,  while  for  the  latter  nothing  is  necessary 
but  a  few  vessels  readily  procured. 

Young  white  wine  if  attacked  by  acetous  degeneration  is  also 
fit  for  nothing  else  than  the  preparation  of  vinegar.  On  account 
of  its  large  content  of  albuminous  substances  it  is,  however,  more 
suitable  for  the  nourishment  of  the  mold  ferment  than  for  that  of 
the  vinegar  ferment,  and  consequently  many  difficulties  occur  in 
its  conversion  into  vinegar.  These  difficulties  can,  however,  be 
prevented  by  mixing  such  wine  with  much  air  and  storing  it  for 
some  time  in  barrels  filled  up  to  the  bung,  or  heating  it  after 
mixing  with  air  to  about  140°  F.,  the  separation  of  the  albumi- 
nous substances  being  effected  by  both  means,  though  more 
rapidly  by  the  latter.  Before  being  further  worked  the  wine  has 
to  be  filtered  to  remove  the  now  insoluble  albuminous  substances, 
whose  presence  might  otherwise  give  rise  to  other  injurious  com- 
plications. 

Before  the  appearance  of  the  phylloxera  in  France  and  the 
consequent  decrease  in  the  production  of  very  ordinary  wines  and  a  . 
better  chance  of  disposing  of  slightly  sick  wines  doctored  by  heat- 
ing, the  manufacture  of  wine  vinegar  was  extensively  carried  on  in 
many  communities,  the  sale  of  this  product  realizing  very  large 
sums.  A  number  of  commercial  travellers  regularly  visited  the 
wine-growing  districts  simply  for  the  purpose  of  buying  up  sick 
wines  to  be  worked  into  vinegar  by  the  factories  represented  by 
them.  And,  notwithstanding  the  process  of  manufacture  in  general 
use  was  rather  incomplete,  it  furnished  a  highly  valued  article, 
though  only  with  a  considerable  loss  of  substance.  Pasteur  made 
some  experiments  regarding  the  mode  of  manufacture  and  recom- 
mended very  valuable  improvements. 

The  question,  what  constitutes  the  superiority  of  wine  vinegar 
over  the  ordinary  product  obtained  from  alcohol,  is  not  difficult 
for  those  who  have  an  accurate  knowledge  of  the  constitution 
of  wine  to  answer.  Wine,  besides  the  ordinary  alcohol  (ethyl 
alcohol),  contains  very  small  quantities  of  other  alcohols,  for  in- 
stance, amyl  alcohol,  which,  in  the  same  manner  as  ethyl  alcohol 
is  converted  into  acetic  acid,  are  changed  into  acids  possessing  a 
peculiar  odor.  Moreover,  wine  very  likely  contains  a  series  of 
odoriferous  substances  which  together  produce  the  peculiar  aroma 


FABRICATION   OF   WIXE-VIXEGAR.  170 

termed  bouquet  or  flower,  the  cenanthic  ether  found  in  every  wine 
forming  so  to  say  the  keynote  in  the  harmony  of  the  odoriferous 
substances  constituting  the  bouquet.  In  the  conversion  of  wine 
into  vinegar  these  bouquet  substances  are  also  changed  in  such  a 
manner  that  bodies  distinguished  by  a  characteristic  odor  are 
formed.  Furthermore,  wine  contains  glycerin,  a  series  of  non- 
volatile organic  acids ;  tartaric,  malic,  succinic  acids  etc.,  and 
finally  the  so-called  extractive  substances.  What  change  these 
bodies  undergo  is  not  accurately  known,  but  all  of  them  are  very 
likely  subject  to  certain  modifications  because  a  smaller  quantity 
of  extractive  substances  and  of  non-volatile  acids  is  found  in  the 
vinegar  than  in  the  original  wine.  The  following  table  shows  the 
composition  of  wine  and  of  the  vinegar  formed  from  it  : — 

Wine  contains—  Wine-vinegar  contains— 

Water,  Water, 

Ethyl  alcohol,  Ethyl  alcohol  (none  or  very  little), 

Other  alcohols,  Other  alcohols  (changed), 

Glycerin,  Glycerin  (less  ?), 

Acetic  acid  (traces),  Acetic  acid  (much  newly  formed), 

Tartaric  acid,  Tartaric  acid  (less). 

Tartar,  Tartar  (less), 

Malic  acid,  Malic  acid  (less), 

Succinic  acid,  Succinic  acid  (less), 

Tannin,  Tannin  (changed),           [changed), 

(Enanthic  ether,  CEnanthic  ether  (changed  and  un- 

Bouquet  substances,  Bouquet  substances  •» 

Extractive  substances,  Extractive      "            >•  changed, 

Coloring  substances.  Coloring          " 

Acetic  ether  and  other)  newly 
compound  ethers        /    formed. 

The  above  comparison  shows  the  thorough  modification  wine 
undergoes  in  being  converted  into  vinegar,  and  that  the  resulting 
product  must  have  a  bouquet  or  flower  having  a  certain  connec- 
tion with  that  of  the  wine. 

Before  entering  upon  a  description  of  the  various  methods  of 
fabricating  wine-vinegar  it  may  be  mentioned  that  an  actually 
fine  product  can  only  be  obtained  by  a  slow  process  of  acetifica- 
tion,  numerous  experiments  having  shown  that  wine  treated  by 
the  quick  process  yields  a  product  very  poor  in  bouquet. 


180  VINEGAR,    CIDER,    AND    FRUIT-WIXES. 

Boiling  of  Wine-  Vinegar. 

The  oldest  method  for  the  preparation  of  wine-vinegar  is  that 
to  which  the  term  "  boiling  of  wine-vinegar'7  (Weinessig-Siederei) 
has  been  applied.  A  barrel  was  filled  f  full  with  wine  to  be 
converted  into  vinegar ;  a  portion  of  the  fluid  was  then  heated 
to  boiling  and  poured  back  into  the  barrel.  Upon  the  wine  thus 
heated  to  about  86°  F.  the  development  of  the  vinegar  ferment 
commenced,  and  in  the  course  of  a  few  months  the  greater  portion 
of  the  alcohol  was  converted  into  acetic  acid.  The  greater  portion 
of  the  contents  of  the  barrel  was  then  drawn  off  as  "  ripe  wine- 
vinegar/'  the  barrel  again  filled  J  full  with  wine,  and  a  portion  of 
this  heated ;  the  operation  was  continued  in  this  manner  until  so 
much  slimy  sediment  had  accumulated  in  the  barrel  as  to  render 
its  complete  emptying  and  cleansing  necessary.  This  crude 'pro- 
cess, which,  as  mentioned,  was  known  in  Germany  as  "  vinegar 
boiling/'  was  similar  to  the  method  formerly  in  general  use  in 
France,  and  which,  being  still  partially  practised  there  in  some 
large  wine-vinegar  factories,  for  instance  in  Orleans,  may  be 
designated  as  the 

Old  French  Method  of  Manufacturing  Wine-Vinegar. 

The  casks,  called  mothers,  which  are  employed  hold  not  more 
than  22  gallons,  each  cask  being  filled  i  full.  Immediately 
above  the  level  of  the  fluid  a  hole  is  bored  in  the  surface  of 
the  front  end  of  each  cask,  this  hole  as  well  as  the  bung-hole  re- 
maining open ;  a  stop-cock  for  the  discharge  of  the  fluid  is  placed 
in  the  lower  part  of  the  cask.  The  casks  are  placed  in  rows  in 
the  open  air,  eight,  ten,  fifteen,  or  twenty  such  rows  constituting 
what  is  termed  a  vinegar  field '.  This  so-called  fielding,  which  is 
carried  on  from  spring  to  fall,  may  be  suitable  for  the  southern 
part  of  France,  but  cannot  be  recommended  for  more  northern 
regions,  as  the  temperature  may  fall  very  low  during  the  night 
and  rise  very  high  during  the  day.  Experience  has  shown  that 
the  augmentation  and  efficacy  of  the  ferments  are  very  much  in- 
jured by  strong  variations  of  temperature,  and  consequently  it  is 
decidedly  preferable  to  keep  the  casks  in  a  room  the  temperature 


FABRICATION   OF   WINE-VINEGAR.      .  181 

of  which  can  be  maintained  at  least  at  68°  F.  The  wine  re- 
mains in  these  casks  until  it  is  converted  into  vinegar ;  the  latter 
is  then  drawn  off  by  means  of  the  above-mentioned  stop-cock 
and  the  casks  are  again  filled  with  wine,  etc.  The  hole  in  the 
front  end  of  the  cask  and  the  bung-hole  permit  the  free  access 
of  air  to  the  surface  of  the  wine.  In  other  French  factories  the 
work  is  carried  on  according  to  a  method  somewhat  different 
from  the  one  just  described.  Casks  having  a  capacity  of  up  to 
100  gallons  are  used,  each  cask  having  in  the  surface  of  the  front 
end  a  square  aperture,  which  serves  to  charge  the  casks  with 
wine  as  well  as  for  the  influx  of  air.  The  casks  are  placed  in  three 
rows  one  above  another  in  a  room  which  can  be  heated.  In  the 
beginning  of  the  operation  a  certain  quantity  of  strong  vinegar 
is  brought  into  the  casks;  about  one-fourth  of  its  volume  of 
wine  is  then  added,  and  at  intervals  of  eight  days  about  10 
quarts  more.  When  the  cask  is  nearly  filled  up  to  the  above- 
mentioned  aperture,  the  regular  process  of  drawing  off  vinegar 
and  filling  up  again  with  wine  is  commenced.  If,  for  instance, 
10  quarts  of  finished  vinegar  are  drawn  off,  the  same  quantity  of 
wine  is  replaced  in  the  cask,  and  suppose  that,  according  to  the 
manner  of  working,  7,  8,  or  10  days  are  required  for  the  con- 
version of  this  quantity  into  vinegar,  10  quarts  of  vinegar  are 
again  drawn  off  after  the  expiration  of  that  time,  this  being  con- 
tinued until  a  disturbance  occurs. 

In  the  course  of  time  large  masses  of  slimy  matter,  consisting  of 
albuminous  substances  which  have  become  insoluble,  coloring 
substances,  vinegar  ferment  vegetating  below  the  surface  (the  so- 
called  mother  of  vinegar),  decayed  vinegar  ferment,  etc.,  form  a 
deposit  in  the  cask,  and  finally  accumulate  to  such  an  extent  as 
to  occupy  half  the  volume  of  the  cask,  so  that  the  latter  has  to 
be.  emptied  and  thoroughly  cleansed.  Sometimes  the  operation 
has  to  be  interrupted  much  sooner  on  account  of  the  contents  of 
the  cask  acquiring  a  disagreeable,  putrid  odor.  This  appearance 
of  putrefaction  is  generally  due  to  vinegar  eels  settling  in  the  in- 
terior of  the  cask — as  a  rule,  immediately  above  the  level  of  the 
fluid — and  developing  to  such  an  extent  that  they  form  a  slimy 
coating  on  the  barrel  and  upon  the  fluid  and  suppress  the  devel- 
opment of  the  vinegar  ferment.  These  animalcules  are  destroyed 


182  VINEGAR,   CIDER,    AND   FRUIT- WINES. 

by  being  deprived  of  air,  and,  hence,  when  the  vinegar  ferment 
is  brought  to  vigorous  development  it  withdraws  so  much  of  the 
oxygen  from  the  air  in  the  cask  that  many  of  them  die  and  their 
bodies  sink  to  the  bottom,  where  they  sooner  or  later  putrefy.  If 
this  putrefying  process  takes  place  before  a  cleansing  of  the  casks 
is  considered  necessary,  it  progresses  to  such  an  extent  that  the 
entire  contents  of  the  cask  are  converted  into  a  stinking  mass 
which  has  to  be  removed  as  quickly  as  possible.  The  casks  in 
which  such  disturbances  take  place  must  of  course  be  carefully 
cleansed  by  sulphuring  and  washing  with  boiling  water  before 
they  are  again  used. 

Modern  French  Method  of  Preparing  Wine-  Vinegar.  . 

The  description  of  the  older  French  methods  given  aboye 
shows  that  they  are  very  crude ;  their  improvement  is,  however, 
not  difficult,  the  principal  being  to  place  the  casks  in  a  room  sub- 
ject to  but  slight  variations  of  temperature,  which  can  be  best 
effected  by  providing  a  good  self-regulating  stove.  The  temper- 
ature near  the  ceiling  being  higher  than  that  immediately  above 
the  floor,  the  formation  of  vinegar  will  take  place  more  rapidly 
in  the  casks  placed  in  the  uppermost  tier  than  in  those  in  the 
lowest,  and  consequently  the  wine  in  them  will  in  a  shorter  time 
be  converted  into  vinegar. 

The  first  thing  in  starting  the  operation  according  to  the  old 
French  method  is  to  acidulate  the  casks  by  pouring  10  to  20 
quarts  of  boiling  hot  vinegar  into  each  and  then  adding  10  to 
15  quarts  of  wine;  after  some  time,  when  the  wine  is  acidulated, 
the  cask  is  filled  up  to  the  previously  mentioned  aperture  and 
left  to  itself  until  the  contents  are  sufficiently  acetified,  when  a 
portion  of  the  vinegar  is  "drawn  off  and  replaced  by  wine,  this 
drawing  off  of  vinegar  and  refilling  with  wine  being  continued 
until  the  cask  on  account  of  the  accumulation  of  sediment  has  to 
be  cleansed. 

This  method,  which  is  sometimes  very  minutely  described  in 
books,  could  only  develop  at  a  time  when  nothing  was  known  of 
the  chemico-physiological  process  of  the  formation  of  vinegar  or 
only  erroneous  opinions  in  regard  to  it  prevailed.  It  is  full  of 


FABRICATION   OF   WINE- VINEGAR.  183 

defects  from  beginning  to  end.  The  acidulation  of  the  casks  with 
boiling  vinegar  is  simply  preposterous,  because  by  heating  the 
vinegar  and  pouring  it  boiling  hot  into  the  cask  not  only  the 
vinegar  ferment  contained  in  it  is  destroyed  but  also  that  present 
in  the  cask  or  wine  itself.  That  acetous  fermentation  takes  place 
notwithstanding  is  very  likely  due  to  the  following  causes  : — 

The  hot  fluid  in  the  cask  gradually  cools  off  and  is  finally  re- 
duced to  the  degree  of  temperature  most  favorable  to  the  develop- 
ment of  the  vinegar  ferment ;  in  the  same  proportion  as  cooling 
off  takes  place  the  air  contracts  in  the  cask  and  air  enters  from 
the  outside.  The  latter,  however,  carries  with  it  germs  of  vinegar 
ferment  which  rapidly  develop  upon  the  fluid  when  reduced  to  the 
proper  temperature  and  cause  its  acetification.  The  air  pene- 
trating into  the  cask  may,  however,  accidentally  contain  no  vine- 
gar ferment,  or  that  contained  in  it  may  not  reach  the  wine ;  in 
such  case  the  wine  may  for  weeks  remain  in  the  cask  without  any 
perceptible  acetification  taking  place  until  the  latter  finally  ap- 
pears by  an  accidental  development  of  the  vinegar  ferment.  This 
uncertainty  can,  however,  be  readily  avoided  by  the  direct  culti- 
vation of  the  vinegar  ferment-  upon  the  wine  to  be  acetified. 
Milk,  as  is  well  known,  turns  sour  on  exposure  to  the  air  by  the 
milk  sugar  being  converted  into  lactic  acid  by  the  action  of  a 
ferment  frequently  occurring  in  the  air,  this  souring  taking  place 
in  several  hours  or  several  days  according  to  the  temperature  to 
which  the  milk  is  exposed.  It  is  further  a  well-known  fact  that  the 
addition  of  a  few  drops  of  sour  to  sweet  milk  suflices  to  imme- 
diately induce  the  formation  of  lactic  acid  in  the  latter ;  the  fer- 
ment of  lactic  acid  fermentation  being  in  the  true  sense  of  the  word 
sowed  upon  the  milk.  The  ferment  develops  very  rapidly,  con- 
verts the  sugar  into  lactic  acid,  and  in  a  short  time  turns  the  en- 
tire quantity  of  milk  sour. 

Exactly  the  same  course  may  be  pursued  as  regards  the  vinegar 
ferment,  it  being  only  necessary  to  mix  the  wine  with  a  fluid 
containing  living  vinegar  ferment  and  place  it  in  a  sufficiently 
warm  room  in  order  to  immediately  start  the  process  of  the 
formation  of  acetic  acid ;  in  this  case  the  vinegar  ferment  is 
sowed  upon  the  wine,  or,  in  other  words,  the  wine  is  infected  with 
vinegar  ferment  and  intentionally  made  "  sick."  This  method  of 


184  VINEGAR,   CIDER,    AND   FRUIT-WIXES. 

transmitting  ferment  to  the  fluid  to  be  fermented  has  for  a  long 
time  been  in  use  in  the  fabrication  of  beer  and  of  alcohol.  In  the 
brewery  the  wort,  and,  in  the  distillery,  the  mash,  is  brought  into 
fermentation  by  "  setting"  it  with  yeast,  L  e.,  alcohol  ferment  is 
intentionally  added.  The  "setting  of  wine"  with  vinegar  fer- 
ment is  the  only  correct  method  for  the  preparation  of  vinegar 
from  wine. 

Before  entering  upon  a  description  of  this  process  it  will  be 
necessary  to  discuss  a  few  undesirable  phenomena  which  may  ap- 
pear in  the  conversion  of  wine  into  vinegar.  A  thick  white  skin 
having  the  appearance  of  a  ruffle  may  frequently  form  upon  the 
surface  of  the  wine  set  for  acetification,  the  wine  in  this  case  becom- 
ing constantly  poorer  in  alcohol,  but  not  sour.  Sometimes  the  pre- 
viously steady  increase  in  the  content  of  acid  in  the  wine  to  be  aceti- 
fied suddenly  ceases  and  a  very  rapid  decrease  in  the  content  of  aeid 
takes  place,  the  development  of  the  white  skin  upon  the  surface 
being  also  in  this  case  observed. 

The  formation  of  this  white  coating  upon  the  surface  is  due  to 
the  development  of  mold  ferment  whose  cells  in  a  short  time 
augment  to  such  an  extent  as  to  form  a  thick  membranous  layer, 
the  folds  being  formed  by  the  superposition  of  the  cells.  The 
mold  ferment  has  the  property  of  converting  alcohol  as  well  as 
acetic  acid  into  carbonic  acid  and  water,  and  consequently  if  it 
settles  upon  wine  the  latter  becomes  poorer  in  alcohol,  and  if  upon 
wine  containing  already  a  certain  quantity  of  acetic  acid  the 
latter  is  also  decomposed.  The  mold  ferment  requires,  however, 
considerable  quantities  of  nitrogenous  combinations  for  its  vigor- 
ous development,  and,  therefore,  readily  settles  upon  young  wine 
which  contains  a  large  quantity  of  albuminous  bodies  in  solution. 
This  fact  explains  the  reason  why  young  wine  is  seldom  attacked 
by  acetous  generation,  but  it  readily  becomes  moldy,  and,  conse- 
quently, cannot  be  recommended  as  material  for  the  fabrication  of 
vinegar  except  the  albuminous  substances  be  first  separated  by 
heating  the  wine  to  140°  F.,  which  is  best  effected  by  means  of 
the  apparatus  shown  in  Fig.  39,  p.  149. 

Another  serious  annoyance  in  the  fabrication  of  wine-vinegar 
is  the  appearance  of  vinegar  eels,  which,  if  not  checked  in  time, 
may  lead  to  the  interruption  of  the  entire  process.  These  ani- 


FABRICATION    OF   WINE-VIXEGAR.  185 

malcules  are  but  seldom  found  in  factories  working  with  pump  or 
well  water,  but  frequently  in  those  using  river  water,  and  conse- 
quently their  introduction  is  likely  due  to  such  water.  In  case 
of  their  appearance  in  large  masses  it  is  best  to  interrupt  the 
process  in  time  in  order  to  prevent  the  previously  mentioned 
phenomena  of  putrefaction.  The  fluid  containing  the  vinegar- 
eels  should  be  drawn  oif  into  a  thoroughly  sulphured  barrel.  The 
sulphurous  acid  kills  the  vinegar  eels  as  well  as  the  vinegar  fer- 
ment, and  the  filtered  fluid,  after  standing  a  few  weeks,  whereby 
the  sulphurous  acid  is  converted  into  sulphuric  acid,  can  again 
be  used  as  alcoholic  liquid.  The  vessels  in  which  the  vinegar 
eels  have  settled  must  also  be  thoroughly  sulphured  and  then 
repeatedly  washed  with  water  before  being  re-used  for  the  fabri- 
cation of  vinegar. 

In  the  apartment  containing  the  vessels  used  for  the  fabrication 
of  wine-vinegar  the  greatest  cleanliness  should  prevail ;  in  fact 
one  cannot  be  too  scrupulous  in  this  respect,  as  otherwise  by- 
fermentations  readily  take  place,  and  another  plague,  the  vinegar- 
lice,  or  more  correctly  vinegar-mites  (see  p.  137),  may  appear. 
Should  any  of  these  evils  happen  the  apartment,  fluids,  and  ves- 
sels must  be  thoroughly  disinfected  by  means  of  sulphurous  acid. 

Method  of  the  Fabrication  of  Wine-Vinegar  according  to  Berscli. 

As  previously  mentioned,  the  fabrication  of  wine-vinegar  by 
the  quick  process  cannot  be  recommended,  the  odoriferous  sub- 
stances which  give  the  product  its  special  value  being  almost 
entirely  lost  thereby ;  but  neither  can  it  be  recommended  to 
WT>rk  according  to  one  of  the  French  processes  previously  de- 
scribed, as  they  require  too  much  time,  are  accompanied  by  large 
losses  as  regards  yield,  and  render  it  difficult  to  maintain  the 
necessary  cleanliness  during  the  operation.  All  these  evils  can 
be  avoided  by  following  the  method  first  proposed,  in  1876,  by 
Dr.  Josef  Bersch,  and  for  some  time  practised  on  a  manufac- 
turing scale. 

The  essential  part  of  the  entire  process  is  the  infection  of  the 
wine  in  suitable  vessels  with  artificially  cultivated  vinegar  fer- 
ment under  conditions  in  which  the  latter  can  rapidly  augment. 


186  VINEGAR,   CIDER,    AND    FRUIT- WINES. 

The  vessels  are  so  arranged  that  the  finished  vinegar  can  be  re- 
moved and  replaced  by  wine  to  be  acetified  without  disturbing 
the  ferment,  one  being  thus  enabled  to  uninterruptedly  continue 
the  process  of  the  formation  of  vinegar  for  a  long  time,  and  pro- 
ducing vinegar  unsurpassed  by  any  other  product  as  regards  deli- 
cacy of  taste  and  odor.  According  to  the  above  statement,  the 
operation  includes  the  cultivation  of  the  vinegar  ferment  on  a  small 
scale  and  on  a  large  scale,  the  former  for  the  production  of-  pure 
ferment  and  the  latter  for  obtaining  wine-vinegar. 

The  cultivation  of  pure  vinegar  ferment  on  a  small  scale  is 
best  effected  by  heating  wine  in  a  porcelain  or  glass  dish  to  140° 
or  150°  F.,  then  mixing  it  with  an  equal  volume  of  vinegar  and 
pouring  the  resulting  fluid  into  shallow  porcelain  plates,  which 
are  placed  in  a  warm  room.  In  a  short  time,  generally  in  24  to 
30  hours,  the  veil-like  layer  of  vinegar  ferment  previously  de- 
scribed is  observed  upon  the  surface  of  the  fluid.  If,  besides  the 
dull  spots  which  are  characteristic  of  pure  vinegar  ferment,  spots 
of  a  pure  white  color  are  formed,  it  is  an  indication  of  the  devel- 
opment of  mold  ferment.  The  contents  of  the  plates  showing 
this  phenomenon  have  to  be  boiled  and  then  again  exposed  to 
the  air. 

The  wine  to  be  acetified  is  in  large,  shallow  vats,  and  is 
brought  to  fermentation  by  carefully  submerging  in  it  one  of 
the  above-mentioned  plates  containing  pure  vinegar  ferment,  so 
that  the  latter  is  distributed  upon  the  surface;  the  plate  is  then 
withdrawn.  The  ferment  augments  very  rapidly,  so  that,  in  24 
hours,  the  surface  of  the  wine  in  the  vat  is  entirely  covered  with 
a  thin  veil  of  it.  By  keeping  the  temperature  of  the  room  in 
which  the  vats  are  placed  at  about  68°  F.,  the  acetification  of 
the  wine  proceeds  rapidly,  tests  repeated  at  intervals  of  24  hours 
showing  a  constant  increase  in  the  content  of  acid,  until  in  about 
8  days  all  the  wine  is  converted  into  vinegar  and  is  drawn  off. 
To  avoid  the  necessity  of  especially  infecting  the  next  quantity 
of  wine  the  finished  vinegar  is  not  entirely  drawn  off,  a  small 
quantity  (about  J  to  1  inch  deep)  upon  the  surface  of  which  the 
vinegar  ferment  floats  being  allowed  to  remain  in  the  vat.  By 
now  introducing  a  fresh  lot  of  wine  the  vinegar  ferment  propa- 
gates upon  it  and  after  some  time  converts  it  into  vinegar. 


FABRICATION    OF    WINE- VINEGAR.  187 

With  sufficient  care  the  process  of  the  formation  of  vinegar 
could  thus  be  uninterruptedly  carried  on  for  any  length  of  time 
by  transferring  the  vinegar  ferment  from  the  finished  vinegar  to 
the  wine,  if  a  cleansing  of  the  vat  were  not  from  time  to  time  re- 
quired, on  account  of  the  accumulation  on  the  bottom  of  the 
vessel  of  decayed  vinegar  ferment  and  flakes  of  albumen  which 
have  become  insoluble.  When  the  vat  is  to  be  cleansed  the  last 
batch  of  vinegar  is  drawn  off  as  long  as  it  runs  off  clear,  and  the 
turbid  remainder  in  the  bottom  of  the  vat  collected  in  a  special 
cask,  where  it  is  allowed  to  repose  until  clear.  The  vat  is  then 
thoroughly  cleansed  with  water,  and  after  filling  it  again  with 
wine,  the  latter  is  mixed  with  pure  vinegar  ferment  in  the  manner 
already  described. 

If,  as  may  happen  in  very  rare  cases,  mold  ferment  in  the  form 
of  the  above-mentioned  white  spots  appears  upon  the  surface  be- 
sides vinegar  ferment,  the  vat  must  be  at  once  emptied.  The 
process  should  also  be  interrupted  in  case  of  the  development  of 
the  so-called  mother  of  vinegar.  The  latter  appears  generally  in 
the  form  of  a  soft  mass  of  the  consistency  of  jelly  submerged  in 
the  fluid,  and  consists  of  vinegar  ferment,  which,  however,  does 
not,  on  account  of  not  being  in  direct  contact  with  the  air,  pro- 
duce acetic  acid.  The  fluid  to  be  acetified  can  be  readily  separated 
from  the  mother  of  vinegar  by  filtering  through  a  close  cloth ; 
the  mother  of  vinegar  remaining  upon  the  latter  and  finally  drying 
to  a  whitish  mass  resembling  very  thin  tissue  paper. 

From  the  above  it  will  be  seen  that  the  rational  preparation  of 
wine-vinegar  is  a  very  simple  matter ;  but  there  are  some  diffi- 
culties which  can,  however,  be  entirely  prevented  or  readily  re- 
moved. The  vinegar  ferment  is  very  sensitive  towards  sudden 
changes  in  the  composition  of  the  fluid  upon  which  it  lives,  as 
well  as  towards  quick  changes  in  the  temperature.  The  sudden 
change  in  the  composition  of  the  fluid  is  prevented  by  not  draw- 
ing off  all  the  finished  vinegar,  but  allowing  a  small  portion  to 
remain  in  the  vat.  The  fresh  supply  of  wine  entering  from  be- 
low then  lifts  up  the  remainder  of  vinegar,  together  with  the  fer- 
ment floating  upon  it,  and  the  mixture  of  both  fluids  is  effected 
so  gradually  that  the  change  in  the  composition  of  the  nourishing 


188  VINEGAR,   CIDER,   AND   FRUIT-WINES. 

fluid  proceeds  very  slowly.  A  sudden  change  in  the  temperature 
of  the  workroom  can,  of  course,  be  readily  prevented  by  proper 
heating. 

Execution  of  the  Preceding  Process  on  a  Manufacturing  Scale. 

The  manufacturer  of  wine-vinegar  has  but  little  choice  in  the 
selection  of  his  material ;  he  must  take  the  spoiled  wines  as  they 
come.  The  only  difference  as  regards  the  value  of  the  material 
is  in  the  content  of  alcohol ;  the  greater  the  latter,  the  more 
valuable  the  material.  Wines  with  a  content  of  alcohol  not 
much  above  6  per  cent,  are  best  used  as  they  are,  as  they  yield 
vinegar  with  about  5J  per  cent,  of  acetic  acid.  It  is  advisable, 
however,  to  dilute  stronger  wines  with  a  content  of  alcohol  up  to 
10  per  cent.,  so  that  they  contain  not  more  than  about  6  per  cent. 
For  the  dilution  of  such  wine  either  water  or  ordinary  vinegar 
can  be  used.  The  strength  of  the  latter  must  be  so  chosen  that 
the  wine-vinegar  prepared  from  a  mixture  of  wine  and  vinegar 
contains  5J  to  6  per  cent,  of  acetic  acid.  The  proportions  in 
which  vinegar  and  wine  are  to  be  mixed  for  this  purpose  are 
found  by  a  simple  calculation  after  accurately  determining  the 
content  of  alcohol  in  the  wine  and  that  of  acetic  acid  in  the 
vinegar. 

The  workroom  should  be  so  situated  as  to  be  protected  against 
sudden  changes  in  the  temperature  and  provided  with  a  furnace 
or  self-regulating  stove.  The  vessels  for  the  formation  of 
vinegar  are  placed  upon  suitable  supports,  and  a  table  for  holding 
the  plates  for  the  cultivation  of  the  vinegar  ferment  should  be 
provided.  If  the  size  of  the  room  permit,  it  is  advisable  to  store 
in  it  a  few  barrels  of  the  material  to  be  worked,  the  fluid  thereby 
gradually  acquiring  the  proper  temperature. 

For  the  formation  of  the  vinegar  very  shallow  vats,  best  with  a 
diameter  of  3J  to  5  feet  and  a  depth  of  9  to  14  inches,  are  used. 

The'  iron  hoops  are  protected  from  the  action  of  the  acetic 
vapors  by  a  coat  of  asphalt  lacquer.  The  vats  are  placed  in  the 
position  they  are  to  occupy  in  the  workroom  and  filled  with 
water  up  to  about  If  to  3}  inches  from  the  top,  the  height  of  the 
level  of  the  fluid  being  marked  on  the  inside  wall.  At  distances 


FABRICATION   OF   WINE-VINEGAR.  189 

of  3f  inches  apart,  and  5f  inches  in  larger  vats,  holes,  I,  Fig.  42, 
of  0.39  inch  diameter  are  then  bored  in  the  wall  of  the  vat ;  one 
hole  is,  however,  bored  in  a  place  about  0.39  inch  deeper  than  /, 
and  in  this  hole  is  fitted  a  glass  tube,  g,  bent  at  a  right  angle, 

Fig.  42. 


Vat  for  the  Preparation  of  Wine- Vinegar. 

under  which  is  placed  an  ordinary  tumbler.  In  the  bottom  of 
the  vat  is  a  tap-hole,  Z,  closed  by  a  stopper. 

If  the  vat  be  filled  during  the  operation  with  wine,  the  latter 
can  only  rise  until  it  begins  to  run  off  at  g.  The  level  of  the  fluid 
being  but  little  below  the  holes  /,  an  uninterrupted  change  in  the 
layer  of  air  above  the  fluid  takes  place.  A  wooden  spigot,  H,  is 
fitted  in  the  vat  about  f  to  1  inch  above  the  bottom.  In  the 
centre  of  the  lid  D,  which  lies  loosely  upon  the  vat,  is  an  aper- 
ture, 0;  in  a  second  aperture  a  thermometer,  T,  is  inserted, 
whose  bulb  dips  into  the  fluid ;  and  in  a  third  aperture  is  fitted  a 
glass  funnel,  R,  reaching  nearly  to  the  bottom  of  the  vat. 

The  operation  in  such  a  factory  commences  with  the  cultivation 
of  the  vinegar  ferment.  For  this  purpose  as  many  shallow  por- 
celain plates  as  there  are  vats  are  placed  upon  the  table  and  wine 
to  the  depth  of  |  to  j  inch  poured  in  each ;  the  room  should  be 
heated  and  kept  at  a  temperature  of  86°  F.  The  manner  of  the 
development  of  the  vinegar  ferment  upon  the  fluid  in  the  plates 
as  well  as  the  precautions  which  have  to  be  taken  has  already 
been  described.  In  the  commencement  of  the  fabrication  the 
cultivation  of  the  ferment  requires  great  attention,  it  being  fre- 
quently disturbed  by  the  development  of  mold  ferment,  but 
when  the  factory  is  once  in  a  proper  state  of  working  it  is  readily 
effected  because  the  air  of  the  workroom  -  then  contains  a  large 


190  VINEGAR,   CIDER,    AND   FRUIT-WINES. 

quantity  of  the  ferment,  which  rapidly  augments  on  coming  in 
contact  with  a  fluid  favorable  for  its  development. 

The  vats  are  charged  by  allowing  the  fluid  to  be  converted  into 
vinegar  to  flow  in  until  it  begins  to  run  out  through  g.  The 
setting  with  ferment  is  then  effected  by  carefully  emptying  the 
contents  of  one  of  the  plates  upon  the  surface  of  the  fluid,  so  that 
the  greater  portion  remains  floating  upon  it.  Finally  the  lid  is 
placed  upon  the  vat  and  the  latter  left  to  itself. 

The  ferment  soon  covers  the  entire  surface  of  the  fluid  in  the 
vat,  and  the  commencement  of  the  process  of  oxidation  is  in  a 
short  time  recognized  by  the  rise  of  the  thermometer  dipping  into 
the  fluid.  As  long  as  the  quantity  of  alcohol  in  the  fluid  is  com- 
paratively large  the  process  of  the  formation  of  acetic  acid  and 
the  augmentation  of  the  ferment  take  place  very  rapidly  and  the 
thermometer  rises  constantly  ;  but  with  an  increase  in  the  quan- 
tity of  acetic  acid  these  processes  become  slower,  which  is  indi- 
cated by  a  fall  in  the  temperature  of  the  fluid.  The  energy  of 
the  process  must,  however,  not  be  allowed  to  sink  below  a  certain 
limit,  care  being  had  to  keep  it  up  by  raising  the  temperature  of 
the  workroom,  but  not  higher  than  is  absolutely  necessary  for  the 
correct  working,  as  otherwise  there  would  be  a  loss  of  acetic  acid 
or  alcohol  by  evaporation. 

The  most  convenient  and  business-like  manner  of  operating  a 
factory  arranged  as  above  described  is  to  simultaneously  charge 
all  the  vats  with  alcoholic  liquid,  it  being  then  entirely  in  one's 
power  to  regulate  the  heating  of  the  workroom  according  to  the 
indications  of  the  thermometer  dipping  into  the  fluid.  If,  for 
instance,  the  operation  commences  at  77°  F.,  the  thermometer 
will  soon  be  observed  to  rise  even  if  the  temperature  of  the  work- 
room remains  unchanged.  By  the  oxidation  of  the  alcohol  suffi- 
cient heat  is  liberated  to  increase  the  temperature  of  the  fluid  to 
above  95°  F. ;  it  is,  however,  advisable  not  to  allow  it  to  rise 
above  86°  or  90°  F.,  as  otherwise  the  losses  by  evaporation  are 
too  great.  Hence,  if  the  fluid  reaches  this  limit  of  temperature 
the  heating  of  the  workroom  is  so  regulated  as  to  prevent  a  fur- 
ther rise  of  the  thermometer,  and  a  constant  temperature  is 
maintained  for  several  days  until  it  commences  to  fall  almost 
simultaneously  in  all  the  vats.  This  fall  in  the  temperature,  as 


FABRICATION   OF   WINE- VINEGAR.  191 

previously  mentioned,  is  an  indication  of  the  fluid  now  containing 
a  comparatively  large  amount  of  acetic  acid  and  of  the  slow  oxi- 
dation of  the  remaining  alcohol.  In  order  to  maintain  the  most 
favorable  conditions  for  the  efficacy  of  the  vinegar  ferment  and 
to  smoothly  and  rapidly  complete  the  process  the  workroom  is 
now  so  heated  as  to  show  a  constant  temperature  of  86°  F.  as  long 
as  the  fluid  remains  in  the  vats. 

Side  by  side  with  the  observation  of  the  statements  of  the 
thermometer  a  chemical  examination  of  the  fluid  has  to  be  carried 
on,  this  examination  gaining  in  importance  the  further  the  forma- 
tion of  vinegar  progresses.  If  the  content  of  alcohol  in  the  wine  to 
be  worked  is  known,  the  test  is  up  to  a  certain  stage  limited  to  the 
determination  of  the  acetic  acid,  but  if  the  process  has  so  far 
advanced  that  to  judge  from  the  content  of  the  fluid  it  contains 
scarcely  1  per  cent,  of  alcohol,  the  latter  has  also  to  be  determined 
by  means  of  the  ebullioscope.  From  this  moment  on  the  course 
of  the  process  must  be  very  carefully  controlled  and  interrupted 
when  still  0.15  or  at  the  utmost  0.2  per  cent,  of  alcohol  is  present ; 
this  small  amount  of  unchanged  alcohol  exerts  a  favorable  effect 
upon  the  quality  of  the  vinegar,  acetic  ether  being  formed  from  it 
and  a  corresponding  quantity  of  acetic  acid  during  the  time  the 
vinegar  has  to  be  stored. 

The  interruption  of  the  process  is  best  effected  by  separating 
the  fluid  from  the  layer  of  ferment  floating  upon  it.  The  stop- 
cock H,  Fig.  42,  is  opened  and  left  open  as  long  as  fluid  runs  out. 
A  layer  of  vinegar  about  f  to  1  inch  deep  upon  which  floats  the 
vinegar  ferment,  remains  in  the  vat,  and  the  stop-cock  being  closed 
a  fresh  supply  of  alcoholic  liquid  is  introduced  through  the  funnel 
R  until  it  begins  to  run  out  through  g.  The  process  then  com- 
mences anew  in  the  manner  above  described. 

Theoretically  unlimited  quantities  of  wine  could  be  converted 
into  vinegar  by  means  of  such  an  apparatus,  as  the  vinegar  fer- 
ment which  floats  upon  the  fluid  remaining  in  the  vat,  rapidly 
augments  upon  the  fresh  supply  of  wine  and  converts  it  into 
vinegar.  In  practice  an  occasional  short  interruption  of  the  pro- 
cess is,  however,  necessary.  During  the  conversion  of  the  wine 
the  greater  portion  of  albuminous  substances  held  in  solution  in 
it  separates  as  flakes,  and,  further,  a  portion  of  the  vinegar  ferment 


192  VINEGAR,   CIDER,   AND    FRUIT-WINES. 

sinks  below  the  level  of  the  fluid  and  assumes  the  form  of  the 
flaky  masses  called  mother  of  vinegar.  The  result  after  a  number 
of  operations  is  a  slimy  sediment,  which  finally  accumulates  to 
such  an  extent  that  it  has  to  be  removed ;  this  is  effected,  after 
the  finished  vinegar  is  drawn  off,  by  opening  the  tap-hole  Z  and 
removing  the  slimy  mass  by  means  of  a  broom  or  crutch.  The 
vat  is  then  thoroughly  washed  with  water  and  can  be  immediately 
recharged  with  wine.  The  slimy  mass  is  best  collected  in  a  tall 
vat  and  allowed  to  rest.  In  a  few  days  it  separates  into  two 
layers,  the  upper  one  consisting  of  quite  clear  vinegar  which  can 
be  used  for  filling  up  storage-barrels,  and  the  lower  one  of  a 
thickly-fluid  mass  from  which  a  certain  quantity  of  vinegar  can 
be  obtained  by  filtration. 

The  vinegar  drawn  off  from  the  vats  is  brought  into  storage 
barrels  which  are  filled  up  to  the  bung  and  closed  air-tight.  The 
volume  of  the  vinegar  decreasing  by  cooling,  the  barrels  must 
from  time  to  time  be  examined  and  kept  filled  up  to  the  bung- 
hole.  While  stored  in  the  barrels  the  vinegar  almost  completely 
clarifies,  and  by  carefully  siphoning  off  the  clear  portion  it  can  be 
at  once  brought  into  commerce  without  further  treatment.  When 
a  considerable  quantity  of  slimy  sediment  has  collected  in  the 
storage-barrels  it  is  drawn  off  and  brought  into  the  above-men- 
tioned clarifying  vat,  or  is  clarified  by  filtration. 

In  case  of  disturbances  in  the  fabrication  by  the  appearance  of 
mold  ferment  or  vinegar  eels,  the  process  once  commenced  must 
be  carried  through  as  well  as  possible  and  then  the  entire  opera- 
tion interrupted  for  the  purpose  of  thoroughly  cleansing  the  vessels 
by  washing  with  boiling  water  or  steaming.  Under  no  circum- 
stances should  it  be  attempted  to  continue  working  with  vats 
infected  with  mold  or  vinegar  eels,  as  it  would  only  lead  to  a 
considerable  loss  of  material  and  the  cleansing  of  the  vessels, 
which  would  have  to  be  finally  done,  would  be  more  difficult. 

In  conclusion  it  may  be  remarked  that  it  is  best  to  bottle  the 
vinegar  after  it  has  become  refined  and  bright  by  storing,  and  close 
the  bottles  with  new  corks ;  by  placing  the  bottles  horizontally 
in  the  cellar  the  vinegar  acquires  a  finer  odor  without  injury  to  its 
content  of  acetic  acid  or  to  its  taste. 

Though  vinegar  prepared  in  the  above-described  manner  and 


FABRICATION   OF   WINE-VINEGAR.  193 

racked  when  entirely  bright  into  bottles  remains,  as  a  rule,  un- 
changed, it  may  happen  to  become  turbid  and  form  a  sediment 
which  is  shown  by  the  microscope  to  consist  of  organisms.  This 
phenomenon  is  generally  accompanied  by  a  change  in  the  odor  of 
the  vinegar,  and  the  acid  taste  loses  sharpness  and  shows  a  pecu- 
liar insipidity.  From  an  accurate  chemical  examination  the 
cause  of  this  alteration  must  be  attributed  to  the  decomposition 
of  the  tartaric  and  malic  acids  in  the  fluid  by  a  ferment.  The 
only  sure  remedy  for  this  and  all  other  alterations  is  to  heat  the 
vinegar  to  140°  F.  whereby  all  organisms  are  killed.  For  heat- 
ing larger  quantities  it  is  recommended  to  pass  the  vinegar  through 
a  coil  of  tin-pipe  surrounded  by  boiling  water  and  after  rapidly 
cooling  the  hot  fluid  to  the  ordinary  temperature  to  store  it  for 
some  time  in  a  barrel  for  the  separation  of  the  solid  bodies. 
Smaller  quantities  can  be  treated  by  bringing  the  vinegar  into 
glass  bottles  of  10  to  15  quarts7  capacity,  placing  the  bottles  in  a 
boiler  filled  with  water  and  heating  to  the  required  temperature. 
A  favorable  result  from  heating  can,  however,  only  be  obtained 
with  vinegar  which  has  already  acquired  a  fine  taste  and  odor  by 
several  months'  storing.  Freshly-prepared  wine-vinegar  still 
showing  the  previously  mentioned  stupefying  odor,  if  heated, 
does  not  acquire  the  fine  bouquet  it  otherwise  would  by  storing. 

Preparation  of  Wine-  Vinegar  from  Lees. 

The  lees  left  from  the  pressing  of  the  wine  consist  of  the  stems, 
husks,  and  seeds  of  the  grapes  and  contain  a  not  unimportant 
quantity  of  must  which  in  many  regions  is  sought  to  be  obtained 
by  pouring  water  over  them  and  subjecting  them  again  to  pres- 
sure. The  must  thus  obtained,  though  poorer  in  sugar  and  ex- 
tractive substances  than  that  of  the  first  pressing,  yields  a  drinkable 
wine  which  is  generally  used  for  household  purposes.  All  the 
valuable  constituents  are,  however,  not  extracted  even  by  this 
treatment,  and  the  remainder  can  be  profitably  used  for  the  pre- 
paration of  vinegar.  In  countries  yielding  wine  of  ordinary 
quality  it  might  even  be  advisable  to  entirely  omit  this  treatment 
of  the  lees  with  water  in  order  to  obtain  an  inferior  quality  of 
.must,  and  use  them  directly  for  the  preparation  of  vinegar. 
13 


194  VINEGAR,   CIDER,    AND   FRUIT- WINES. 

If  the  fresh  lees  are  thrown  in  a  pile  and  allowed  to  ferment, 
considerable  heat  will  be  developed  in  the  course  of  a  few  days, 
in  fact  so  much  that  the  mass  commences  to  steam.  When  fer- 
mentation is  finished,  or  shortly  before,  an  agreeable  odor  of  acetic 
ether  is  evolved,  which  is  due  to  the  commencement  of  the  devel- 
opment of  vinegar  ferment  upon  the  lees  and  the  formation  of 
acetic  acid,  the  latter  combining  with  a  certain  quantity  of  the 
alcohol  formed  by  fermentation  to  acetic  ether.  (At  this  stage  in 
the  change  of  the  lees  a  small  quantity  of  acetic  ether  can  be  ob- 
tained from  them  by  distillation.) 

The  odor  of  acetic  ether  is  soon  overcome  by  that  of  acetic 
acid,  the  conversion  of  the  newly-formed  alcohol  into  acetic  acid 
now  progressing  rapidly  on  the  surface  of  the  lees.  Later  on  the 
sharp  odor  of  acetic  acid  again  decreases,  the  greater  portion  of  it 
being  destroyed  by  mold  and  other  ferments,  the  development 
of  which  now  progresses  with  great  rapidity  in  the  thoroughly 
heated  mass  of  lees ;  lactic  acid  is  formed,  and  later  on  the  mass 
acquires  a  rancid  odor  calling  to  mind  that  of  old  cheese,  which 
is  due  to  butyric  acid,  valeriauic  acid,  etc.  The  lees  gradually 
acquire  a  darker  color  and  finally  putrefaction  sets  in. 

If  only  the  sugar  still  contained  in  the  lees  is  to  be  obtained 
and  vinegar  to  be  prepared  in  the  most  simple  manner,  the  fol- 
lowing process  may  lye  used  :  The  mass  of  lees  as  it  comes  from 
the  press  is  broken  up  and  put  in  a  pile,  where  it  is  left  to  itself 
until  it  becomes  warm  and  acquires  the  odor  of  alcohol  and  acetic 
ether.  The  mass  is  then  shovelled  into  a  vat  and  gently  pressed 
together  with  a  shovel.  For  every  220  Ibs.  of  lees  us<$,  about  10 
quarts  of  water  are  now  sprinkled  over  the  mass  by  means  of  a 
watering-pot.  By  the  entrance  of  air  while  shovelling  the  pile  of 
lees  into  the  vat  the  action  of  the  vinegar  ferment  has  been  accele- 
rated and  a  considerable  quantity  of  alcohol  converted  into  acetic 
acid,  which  is  indicated  by  the  stronger  vinegar  odor.  The 
water  permeating  the  lees  almost  completely  displaces  the  fluid 
containing  the  alcohol  and  acetic  acid,  the  latter  running  oft 
through  an  aperture  in  the  bottom  of  the  vat.  It  is  collected 
in  a  shallow  vessel  placed  in  an  apartment  having  the  ordinary 
temperature  of  a  living  room,  and  is  allowed  to  rest.  The  vine- 
gar ferment  present  in  abundance  in  the  fluid  rises  to  the  surface, 


FABRICATION   OF    WIXE-YIXEGAR.  195 

where  it  quickly  augments  and  converts  the  remainder  of  the 
alcohol  in  the  fluid  into  acetic  acid.  The  only  difficulty  to  be 
overcome  in  preparing  the  vinegar  according  to  this  method  is 
the  appearance  of  the  mold  ferment  upon  the  surface  of  the  fluid. 
This  can,  however,  be  met  by  removing  the  growth  of  this  fer- 
ment, which  is  recognized  by  its  pure  white  color,  by  means  of 
a  spoon  as  soon  as  it  has  attained  the  thickness  of  a  few  milli- 
meters. The  vinegar  ferment  then  soon  commences  to  augment 
and  suppresses  the  further  growth  of  the  mold  ferment. 

If  the  grapes  originally  used  contained  from  18  to  20  per  cent, 
of  sugar,  the  vinegar  from  the  lees  prepared  according  to  this 
method  shows,  if  not  too  much  water  has  been  used,  a  content  of 
at  least  4  or  5  per  cent,  of  acetic  acid,  and  consequently  is  imme- 
diately fit  for  table  use.  By  long  storing  in  barrels  kept  filled 
up  to  the  bung-holes,  it  acquires  a  flavor  resembling  that  of  vine- 
gar prepared  from  wine. 

On  account  of  the  simplicity  and  the  slight  expense  connected 
with  it  the  above-described  process  is  especially  adapted  for  the 
preparation  of  vinegar  for  household  purposes.  But  for  commer- 
cial purposes  on  a  large  scale  it  is  advisable  to  obtain  a  stronger 
and  consequently  more  valuable  product  by  a  somewhat  modified 
process. 

For  the  preparation  of  stronger  vinegar  from  a  fluid  it  is  neces- 
sary to  give  it  a  higher  content  of  alcohol  or  sugar.  As  is  \vell 
known,  1  per  cent,  of  sugar  in  a  fluid  yields  after  fermentation  in 
round  numbers  0.5  per  cent,  of  alcohol,  and  the  latter  about  0.4 
per  cent,  of  acetic  acid.  These  figures,  though  not  absolutely 
correct,  are  sufficiently  so  for  practical  purposes.  Hence,  if  the 
content  of  acetic  acid  is  to  be  increased  1  per  cent.,  1.2  per  cent, 
of  alcohol  or  2.4  per  cent,  of  sugar  has  to  be  added  to  every  hec- 
toliter (22  imp.  gallons)  of  the  fluid  to  be  worked  into  vinegar. 

The  substances  which  impart  to  wine-vinegar  its  greater  value 
as  compared  with  ordinary  vinegar  are  derived  from  the  grape ; 
they  are  found  in  abundance  in  the  must  as  well  as  in  the  fresh 
lees,  and  are  yielded  by  the  latter  to  water.  Hence,  excellent 
wine-vinegar  can  be  prepared  from  the  lees  by  working  accord- 
ing to  the  following  method  : — 

The  lees  are  brought  directly  from  the  press  into  a  vat  and 


VINEGAR,   CIDER,   AND   FRUIT-WINES. 

twice  or  three  times  a  day  their  weight  of  water  is  poured  over 
them.  After  standing  24  to  36  hours  in  not  too  cool  a  place,  the 
generally  strongly  fermenting  fluid  is  drawn  off  and  what  is  re- 
tained by  the  lees  gained  by  pressing.  In  this  manner  a  fluid  is 
obtained  differing  from  the  must  only  in  a  smaller  content  of 
sugar  and  tartaric  acid,  the  so-called  extractive  substances  con- 
tained in  the  must  which  impart  to  the  wine  its  characteristic 
properties  being  present  in  abundance. 

The  must  obtained  from  the  lees  is  now  examined  as  to  its  con- 
tent of  sugar.  If,  for  instance,  it  shows  10  per  cent,  of  sugar,  it 
will,  when  fermentation  is  finished,  have  a  content  of  nearly  5 
per  cent,  of  alcohol  and  yield  vinegar  with  about  4  per  cent,  of 
acetic  acid.  By  the  addition  of  sugar  or  alcohol  according  to  the 
above-mentioned  proportions  a  fluid  can,  however,  be  obtained 
which  contains  5  or  6  or  more  per  cent,  of  acetic  acid.  For  "the 
final  result  of  the  process  it  is  indifferent  whether  sugar  or  alcohol 
is  added  to  the  fluid,  the  choice  depending  on  the  current  value  of 
these  articles. 

If  sugar  is  used,  it  is  dissolved  directly  in  the  fluid  obtained 
from  the  lees  and  the  latter  allowed  to  ferment  at  about  68° 
to  77°  F.  When  working  with  alcohol  it  is  advisable,  in  order 
to  avoid  loss  by  evaporation,  to  ferment  the  fluid  from  the  lees 
by  itself,  and  only  add  the  alcohol  when  acetous  fermentation 
is  to  be  induced. 

During  fermentation  the  must  from  the  lees  separates  yeast 
in  abundance,  and  being  consequently  turbid,  is  allowed  to  cla- 
rify in  barrels  kept  full  up  to  the  bung.  When  clear,  it  is 
siphoned  off  from  the  sediment  of  yeast. 

The  conversion  of  this  wine  from  lees  into  vinegar  is  best 
effected  by  the  process  of  Rectification,  by  means  of  ferment 
growing  upon  the  fluid  described  on  p.  185  et  seq.  The  only 
difficulty  which  can  present  itself  is  that  the  wine,  being  young 
wine,  contains  a  considerable  quantity  of  albuminous  substances, 
and  is  consequently  more  inclined  towards  the  nourishment  of 
mold  ferment  than  towards  that  of  vinegar  ferment.  This  can, 
however,  be  met  by  setting  the  fluid  at  a  higher  temperature, 
about  86°  F.,  with  pure  cultivated  vinegar  ferment,  and  carefully 
watching  the  surface  for  the  formation  of  white  spots  of  mold 


CHEMICAL   EXAMINATION  OF   RAW   MATERIALS.  197 

ferment,  and  immediately  removing  them.  By  proceeding  in 
this  manner,  the  entire  surface  will  in  a  few  hours  be  covered 
with  vinegar  ferment,  when  there  will  be  no  further  danger  of 
the  dislodgment  of  the  latter  by  mold  ferment. 

The  process  of  acetification  being  finished,  the  vinegar  is  drawn 
off  into  storage  barrels,  which  must  be  kept  full  up  to  the  bung, 
and  subjected  to  the  same  treatment  as  the  product  obtained  from 
wine. 


CHAPTER    XIX. 

CHEMICAL   EXAMINATION   OF    THE    RAW   MATERIALS  AND   CON- 
TROL  OF   THE   OPERATIONS   IN    A    VINEGAR    FACTORY. 

Determination  of  Sugar. 

THE  sacchariferous  materials  used  by  the  vinegar  manufacturer 
are  either  whiskey-mashes,  malt-extracts,  or  must  prepared  from 
wine-lees,  apples,  etc.  The  determination  of  sugar  contained  in 
these  fluids  is  effected  by  means  of  various  instruments,  which 
are  really  hydrometers,  with  different  names  and  graduations. 
The  instruments  mostly  used  for  the  determination  of  sugar  in 
whiskey-mashes  and  malt-worts  are  known  as  saccharometers, 
and  directly  indicate  the  content  of  sugar  in  the  fluid  in  per  cent: 
A  similar  instrument,  known  as  the  must-aerometer,  serves  for 
the  determination  of  the  content  of  sugar  in  grape-must.  Ac- 
cording to  the  arrangement  of  their  scales,  the  must-aerometers 
indicate  either  direct  sugar  per  cent.,  or  degrees ;  in  the  latter 
case  the  use  of  special  tables  accompanying  the  instrument  is  re- 
quired for  finding  the  per  cent,  of  sugar  corresponding  to  a  cer- 
tain number  of  degrees. 

No  special  saccharometer  for  fruit-must  having  as  yet  been 
constructed,  the  determination  of  the  content  of  sugar  has  to  be 
effected  either  by  a  tedious  method  unsuitable  for  practice,  or, 
what  can  be  more  quickly  done,  by  fermenting  a  sample  of  the 
respective  must,  and  after  determining  the  quantity  of  alcohol, 
ascertaining  from  it  the  content  of  sugar. 


198  VINEGAR,   CIDER,    AND   FRUIT-WINES. 

Iii  place  of  special  saccharometers  or  must -aerometers,  an  ordi- 
nary aerometer  indicating  the  specific  gravity  can  also  be  used, 
and  the  content  of  sugar  corresponding  to  a  certain  specific  grav- 
ity found  from  a  reducing  table.  Tables  X.  to  XIII.  at  the  end 
of  this  volume  give  the  content  of  sugar  especially  for  wine-must, 
but  also  with  sufficient  accuracy  for  apple-  or  pear-must,  accord- 
ing to  the  statements  of  the  respective  must-aerometers. 

Determination  of  Alcohol. 

In  a  factory  using  commercial  spirits  of  wine  as  the  fundamen- 
tal material  for  the  fabrication  of  vinegar,  the  percentage  of  ab- 
solute alcohol  contained  in  it  has  to  be  accurately  determined  in 
order  to  enable  one  to  correctly  calculate,  in  the  manner  ex- 
plained on  p.  104,  the  quantity  of  water  required  for  the  prepa- 
ration of  alcoholic  liquid  of  determined  strength. 

For  the  determination  of  the  content  of  alcohol  in  pure  spirits 
of  wine  consisting  only  of  water  and  alcohol,  instruments  called 
alcoholometers  are  generally  used ;  they  indicate  the  volumes  of 
alcohol  contained  in  100  volumes  of  the  spirits  of  wine.  They 
are,  however,  not  suited  for  this  purpose  when,  as  is  frequently 
the  case  in  a  vinegar  factory,  the  spirit  of  wine  contains  other 
bodies  besides  water  and  alcohol.  In  this  case,  either  the  alcohol 
contained  in  a  sample  has  to  be  distilled  off,  and  after  determin- 
ing its  strength  by  the  alcoholometer,  the  content  of  alcohol  in 
the  total  quantity  of  fluid  ascertained  by  calculation,  or  the  de- 
termination is  effected  in  a  short  time  and  with  sufficient  accuracy 
for  practical  purposes  by  the  use  of  a  special  apparatus. 

Determination  of  the  Alcohol  with  the  Alcoholometer. 

For  the  vinegar  manufacturer  the  alcoholometer  is  an  import- 
ant instrument  in  so  far  as  it  serves  for  quickly  ascertaining  the 
degrees  of  the  spirits  of  wine  used.  It  is  best  to  use  an  in- 
strument which  is  combined  with  a  thermometer,  one  being  thus 
enabled  to  ascertain  the  temperature  of  the  fluid  simultaneously 
with  reading  off  the  statement  of  the  alcoholometer.  Tables  I. 
to  VIII.  appended  to  this  work  give  the  necessary  assistance  for 


CHEMICAL   EXAMINATION    OF   RAW    MATERIALS.  199 

the  determination  of  the  actual  content  of  alcohol  in  a  fluid  whose 
temperature  is  above  or  below  the  normal  temperature  (59°  F.). 
For  the  purpose  of  examining  fluids  with  a  very  small  content 
of  alcohol,  alcoholometers  have  been  constructed  which  accurately 
indicate  at  least  0.1  per  cent.  For  the  demands  of  the  fabrica- 
tion of  vinegar,  four  alcoholometers  will,  as  a  rule,  suffice  ;  they 
should  be  so  selected  that  one  is  to  be  used  for  fluids  with  from 
0  to  4  per  cent,  of  alcohol,  the  second  for  indicating  4  to  8  per 
cent.,  the  third  8  to  12  per  cent.,  and  the  fourth  12  to  16  percent. 
The  scale  of  such  alcoholometers  comprising  only  4  per  cent,  each, 
is  sufficiently  Targe  to  allow  of  the  easy  reading  off  of  one-tenth 
per  cent.  These  instruments  serve  for  the  determination  of  the 
content  of  alcohol  in  alcoholic  liquid  consisting  only  of  spirits  of 
wine  and  water,  and  are  used  in  examining  the  progress  of  the 
formation  of  vinegar  during  fabrication. 

Determination  of  the  Alcohol  by  the  Distilling  Test. 

The  content  of  alcohol  in  a  fluid  containing  other  bodies  be- 
sides .alcohol  and  water  cannot  be  directly  determined  by  means 
of  the  alcoholometer,  as  the  statement  of  the  latter  would  be  in- 
correct on  account  of  the  foreign  bodies  exerting  a  considerable 
influence  upon  the  specific  gravity.  Hence,  the  content  of  alcohol 
in  alcoholic  liquid  containing  a  certain  quantity  of  acetic  acid,  or 
of  fermented  whiskey-mash,  beer,  wine,  etc.,  cannot  be  ascer- 
tained by  immersing  the  alcoholometer  in  the  respective  fluid.  In 
order  to  determine  the  content  of  alcohol  in  such  a  fluid  a  deter- 
mined volume  of  it  is  subjected  to  distillation  and  the  latter  con- 
tinued until  it  may  be  supposed  that  all  the  alcohol  present  is 
volatilized  and  again  condensed  in  a  suitable  cooling  apparatus. 
By  diluting  the  fluid  distilled  over  with  sufficient  water  to  restore 
it  to  the  volume  of  the  fluid  originally  used  and  immersing  the 
alcoholometer  the  content  of  alcohol  is  determined. 

A  rapid  and  at  the  same  time  accurate  execution  of  all  exami- 
nations being  of  great  importance  in  practice,  a  suitable  apparatus 
should  be  used  for  the  distilling  test.  Such  an  apparatus  is 
shown  in  Fig.  43.  It  consists  of  a  glass  boiling  flask,  K,  having 
a  capacity  of  J  liter  in  which  sits  by  means  of  a  perforated 


erm 


200 


VINEGAR,   CIDER,   AND   FRUIT-WINES. 


cork  a  glass  tube,  7^,  which  is  about  f  inch  in  diameter  and  7} 
inches  in  length.  On  top  this  tube  is  closed  by  a  perforated 
cork.  From  the  latter  a  glass  tube  bent  twice  at  a  right  angle 
leads  to  a  cooling  coil,  which  is  placed  in  a  vessel,  F,  filled  with 
water,  and  ends  over  a  graduated  cylindrical  glass  vessel,  G. 


Distilliug  Apparatus  for  the  Determination  of  Alcohol. 

The  uppermost  mark  on  G  indicates  the  height  to  which  the 
vessel  must  be  filled  to  contain  J  liter  =  500  cubic  centimeters. 
Generally  vessels  are  used  which  are  so  graduated  that  the  dis- 
tance between  two  marks  is  equal  to  •£-$  liter  or  50  cubic  centi- 
meters. The  boiling  flask  stands  upon  a  plate  of  thin  sheet-iron 
(to  prevent  bursting  from  an  immediate  contact  with  the  flame), 
and  together  with  the  cooling  vessel  is  screwed  to  a  suitable  sup- 
port. 

In  distilling  a  fluid  containing  acetic  acid  the  vapors  of  the 
latter  pass  over  together  with  those  of  alcohol  and  water,  and, 
consequently,  the  statement  of  the  alcoholometer  would  be  in- 
correct. This  evil  is  overcome  by  placing  a  few  pieces  of  chalk 
the  size  of  a  hazel  nut  in  the  tube  R.  By  the  vapors  coming  in 
contact  with  the  chalk  the  acetic  acid  is  fixed  to  the  lime  con- 
tained in  it,  not  a  trace  reaching  the  cooling  vessel. 

The  manner  of  executing  the  test  with  this  apparatus  is  as  fol- 


CHEMICAL    EXAMINATION   OF   RAW   MATERIALS.  201 

lows  :  Fill-  the  vessel  G  to  the  uppermost  mark  with  the  fluid 
whose  content  of  alcohol  is  to  be  examined,  then  pour  it  into  the 
boiling  flask  K,  rinse  out  G  with  water,  and  after  pouring  the 
rinsing  water  into  K  put  the  apparatus  together  as  shown  in  the 
illustration.  The  contents  of  K  are  then  heated  to  boiling  by  a 
spirit  or  gas  flame  under  the  sheet-iron  plate  upon  which  K  rests, 
the  flame  being  so  regulated  that  the  distillate  flows  in  drops  into 
G.  By  too  strong  heating  the  contents  of  K  might  foam  up  and 
pass  into  G,  which  would  necessitate  a  repetition  of  the  experi- 
ment with  another  quantity  of  fluid.  Wine,  beer,  and  whiskey- 
mashes  frequently  foam  up  on  heating,  which  can,  however,  be 
almost  completely  overcome  by  the  addition  of  a  small  quantity 
of  tannin  solution  to  the  contents  in  K. 

The  heating  of  the  boiling  flask  is  continued  until  sufficient 
fluid  is  distilled  over  into  G  to  fill  it  from  J  to  J,  this  being  a  sure 
indication  of  all  the  alcohol  present  in  the  fluid  having  passed 
over.  The  flame  is  then  removed,  the  vessel  G  filled  to  the 
uppermost  mark  with  distilled  water,  and  the  fluids  intimately 
mixed  by  shaking,  the  mouth  of  G  being  closed  by  the  hand. 
The  fluid  now  contained  in  G  consists  only  of  water  and 
alcohol,  and  its  volume  is  equal  to  that  of  the  fluid  originally 
used.  By  testing  the  fluid  with  an  alcoholometer  the  content 
of  alcohol  found  corresponds  exactly  to  that  possessed  by  the 
fluid  examined  (alcoholic  liquid,  beer,  fermented  whiskey-mash, 
etc.). 

Determination  of  the  Alcohol  by  Means  of  the  EbulUoscope. 

Many  determinations  of  the  content  of  alcohol  in  the  alcoholic 
fluid  having  to  be  made  in  a  well-conducted  vinegar  factory,  the 
above-described  distilling  test  is  objectionable  on  account  of  the 
time  (about  twenty  minutes)  required  for  its  execution.  Good 
results  are,  however,  obtained  by  the  use  of  the  ebullioscope,  and 
but  a  few  minutes  being  required  for  the  test  with  this  apparatus 
it  can  be  frequently  repeated,  and  thus  even  a  more  accurate  idea 
of  the  working  of  the  generators  obtained  than  is  possible  with  a 
single  determination  by  the  distilling  test.  The  apparatus  is  very 
simple,  is  easily  managed,  and  allows  of  the  direct  reading  off, 


202 


VINEGAR,    CIDER,   AND    FRUIT- WINES. 


without  the  use  of  an  aerometer  or  table,  of  the  content  of  alcohol 
in  a  fluid  containing  not  much  over  12  per  cent.  It  is  much 
used  in  France  for  the  examination  of  wine.  The  principle  of 
the  apparatus  is  based  upon  the  initial  boiling  point  of  the  fluid 
to  be  examined,  an  alcoholic  fluid  boiling  at  a  lower  temperature 
the  more  alcohol  it  contains.  For  instance,  wine  with — 

12  per  cent,  by  volume  of  alcohol  boils  at  196.7°  F. 

10  "  "  "  "  "  198.3  " 

8  "  "  "  »  "  201.0  " 

5  «  «  it  u  «  203.3  " 

Fig.  44  shows  Vidal-Malligaud's  ebullioscope.     To  a  round 
cast-iron  stand  is  screwed  a  thick-walled  brass  cup  which  expands 

Fig.  44. 


Vidal-Malligaud's  Ebullioscope. 

somewhat  towards  the  top ;  a  screw-thread  is  cut  in  the  upper 
edge.     A  hollow-brass  ring  is  soldered  into  the  cup  near  its  base, 


CHEMICAL    EXAMINATION   OF   RAW   MATERIALS.  203 

one  end  of  the  ring  entering  it  somewhat  higher  than  the  other. 
On  filling  the  cup  with  the  fluid  to  be  examined  this  hollow  ring 
also  becomes  filled.  On  the  one  side  the  ring  carries  -a  small 
sheet-iron  chimney,  and  by  placing  a  small  spirit-lamp  under  this 
the  fluid  in  the  cup  is  heated,  this  arrangement  securing  a  quick 
circulation  of  the  fluid  during  heating.  Upon  the  upper  edge 
of  the  cup,  a  lid  is  screwed,  in  which  a  thermometer  is  inserted 
air-tight.  The  mercury  bulb  of  the  thermometer  is  on  the  lower 
side  of  the  lid,  and  in  determining  the  boiling  point  dips  into  the 
fluid.  The  tube  of  the  thermometer  is  bent  at  a  right  angle  out- 
side the  lid,  the  latter  carrying  the  scale,  which  is  divided  not 
into  degrees  but  in  per  cent,  by  volume  of  alcohol.  The  scale 
can  be  shifted  upon  a  supporting  plate  so  that  it  can  be  fixed  at 
any  desired  place,  and,  consequently,  also  so  that  the  thermometer 
when  dipped  into  boiling  water  indicates  0.  The  scale  is  secured 
by  small  screws.  Into  a  second  aperture  in  the  lid  is  screwed  the 
cooling  pipe  which  is  surrounded  by  a  wide-brass  tube  for  the 
reception  of  the  cooling  water.  During  the  determination  of  the 
alcohol,  which  requires  about  ten  minutes,  the  cooling  water  need 
not  be  renewed,  the  boiling  point  remaining  constant  during  the 
short  time  (one  to  two  minutes)  necessary  for  making  the  obser- 
vation. In  heating  wine  the  gases  and  besides  a  few  light 
volatile  varieties  of  ether,  as  acetic  ether,  aldehyde,  ethylamine, 
propylamine,  and  similar  combinations  escape  through  the  cooling 
pipe  which  is  open  on  top,  and  in  heating  beer,  carbonic  acid. 
For  the  determination  of  the  alcohol  in  sacchariferous  wines,  the 
ebullioscope  is  less  adapted,  nor  does  it  give  accurate  results  with 
the  use  of  dilute  wines. 

It  has  been  ascertained  by  the  French  Academy  that  the  state- 
ments of  the  ebullioscope  as  regards  the  quantity  of  alcohol  in 
the  wine  differ  on  an  average  ^  per  cent,  from  those  found  by 
accurate  distillation.  The  entire  apparatus  with  the  exception  of 
the  thermometer  being  of  metal,  it  is  not  liable  to  breakage. 
The  mercury  bulb  of  the  thermometer  is  comparatively  large. 
For  the  vinegar  manufacturer  the  ebullioscope  is  a  very  valu- 
able instrument,  as  it  enables  him  to  accurately  determine  to  with- 
in 1  per  cent,  the  content  of  alcohol  in  a  fluid  in  a  shorter  time 
than  is  possible  with  any  other  instrument.  Its  use  is  especially 


204  VINEGAR,   CIDER,    AND   FRUIT-WINES. 

recommended  when  the  working  of  one  or  more  generators  is  to 
be  ascertained  in  a  short  time,  perfectly  reliable  results  being  ob- 
tained in  connection  with  the  determination  of  the  acid  by  titra- 
tiou. 

Determination  of  the  Content  of  Acetic  Anhydride  in  Vinegar,  or 

Acetometry. 

The  content  of  acetic  acid  in  vinegar  is  sometimes  ascertained 
by  a  species  of  hydrometer  termed  an  acetometer.  The  statements 
of  these  instruments  are,  however,  very  unreliable.  Vinegar 
made  from  dilute  alcohol  or  ripe  wines  in  which  no  great  excess 
of  albuminous  or  other  matter  is  present  might  to  a  certain  limit 
be  tested  with  sufficient  accuracy  by  the  acetometer,  but  vinegars 
made  from  malt,  poor  wines,  and  such  liquids  as  contain  au  ex- 
cess of  organic  matters,  do  not  admit  of  being  tested  with  the 
required  degree  of  accuracy  by  this  method,  since  the  apparent 
quantity  of  real  acetic  acid  is  increased  by  the  presence  of  foreign 
bodies  which  add  to  the  density  of  the  liquid.  In  some  cases  the 
vinegar  is  saturated  with  chalk  or  milk  of  lime,  the  solution  fil- 
tered, and  the  specific  gravity  of  the  acetate  of  lime  liquor  ascer- 
tained, by  which  a  nearer  approximation  is  arrived  at  than  by 
the  direct  testing  of  the  vinegar,  yet  implicit  reliance  cannot  be 
placed  on  either  of  these  two  methods. 

The  best  method  of  ascertaining  the  percentage  of  acetic  acid 
in  vinegar  is  by  titration  or  volumetric  analysis.  For  the  execu- 
cutiou  of  the  test  a  few  instruments  are  required,  which  shall  be 
briefly  described  as  follows :  For  measuring  off  small  quantities 
of  liquids,  serve  a  burette  and  pipette,  the  latter  a  glass  tube  of 
the  form  shown  in  Fig.  45.  It  is  filled  by  dipping  the  lower 
end  into  the  liquid  and  sucking  on  the  upper  with  the  mouth 
until  the  liquid  has  ascended  nearly  to  the  top.  The  upper  end 
is  then  quickly  closed  with  the  index  finger  of  the  right  hand. 
By  slightly  lifting  the  finger,  the  liquid  is  then  allowed  to  flow 
off  by  drops  until  its  level  has  reached  a  mark  above  the  convex 
expansion,  when  it  will  contain  exactly  the  number  of  cubic  cen- 
timeters indicated  opposite  to  the  mark. 

The  burette  is  a  cylindrical  glass  tube  open  on  the  top,  gradu- 


CHEMICAL   EXAMINATION   OF   RAW   MATERIALS. 


205 


ated,  commencing  from  the  top,  into  whole,  one-tenth,  and  one- 
fifth  cubic  centimeters.     The  lower  end  of  the  tube  is  drawn  out 


Fig.  45. 


Fig.  46. 


to  a  somewhat  distended  point,  so  as  to  allow  a  rubber  tube  to  be 
drawn  over  it  and  securely  fastened.     In  the  lower  end  a  glass 


200 


VINEGAR,    CIDER,    AND    FRUIT-WINES. 


tube  drawn  out  to  a  fine  point  is  inserted.     The  rubber  tube  is 
compressed  in  the  centre  by  a  pinch-cock  or  clip,  whereby  the 

lower  end  is  closed.  Fig.  46 
shows  a  burette  secured  in  a 
stand  and  Fig.  47  the  lower 
part,  with  the  clip  on  a  larger 
scale.  The  burette  is  filled 
with  liquid  from  above  by 
means  of  a  small  funnel.  By 
a  quick,  strong  pressure  upon 
the  handle-joint  of  the  clip, 
some  liquid  is  then  allowed 
to  flow  in  a  jet  into  a  vessel. 
By  this  the  tube  below  the 
clip  is  filled  with  liquid -and 
the  air  contained  in  it  ex- 
pelled. By  a  slight  or  stronger 
pressure  the  liquid  can,  after 
some  experience,  be  ejected  in 
drops  or  in  a  stronger  jet. 
The  number  of  cubic  centi- 
meters which  have  been  al- 
lowed to  flow  out  can  be 
readily  read  off  by  keeping 
the  surface  of  the  fluid  in  the 
tube  on  a  level  with  the  eye. 
The  test  liquor  generally  used 
is  normal  caustic  soda  solu- 
tion, one  cubic  centimeter  of  it 
corresponding  to  0.06  gramme 

of  acetic  anhydride,  and  for  especially  accurate  determinations  de- 
cinormal  solution,  one  cubic  centimeter  of  it  corresponding  to 
0.006  gramme  of  acetic  anhydride  and  y1^  cubic  centimeter  to 
0.0006  gramme. 

For  determining  the  acetic  acid  the  burette  is  filled  to  the  O 
point  with  soda  solution  ;  a  corresponding  quantity  of  vinegar  is 
then  accurately  measured  off  by  means  of  the  pipette,  and  after 
bringing  it  into  a  beaker,  colored  red  by  the  addition  of  one  or 


CHEMICAL   EXAMINATION    OF   RAW   MATERIALS.  207 

two  drops  of  litmus  tincture  and  diluted  with  four  to  six  times 
its  quantity  of  distilled  water.  The  beaker  is  placed  upon  a 
Avhite  support  under  the  burette  and  the  soda  solution  in  the 
latter  ejected  in  a  strong  jet  by  pressing  with  the  right  hand  the 
handle-joint  of  the  clip,  the  fluid  being  constantly  agitated  by 
gently  swinging  the  beaker  with  the  left.  The  influx  of  soda 
solution  is  interrupted  as  soon  as  a  blue  coloration  on  the  point 
where  it  runs  in  is  observed.  After  thoroughly  stirring  the  fluid 
with  a  glass  rod,  the  soda  solution  is  again  allowed  to  run  in,  but 
now  drop  by  drop,  the  fluid  being  stirred  after  the  addition  of 
each  drop.  This  is  continued  until  the  fluid  has  acquired  a  violet 
color  with  a  strong  reddish  shade,  and  the  addition  of  one  drop 
more  of  soda  solution  changes  the  color  to  blue.  The  appearance 
of  the  violet  coloration  is  called  the  neutralizing  point,  while  the 
change  of  color  from  violet  to  blue  indicates  that  the  fluid  is  now 
neutral,  i.  e.,  contains  neither  free  acetic  acid  nor  an  excess  of 
caustic  soda.  The  determination  is  based  upon  the  coloring  sub- 
stance of  litmus  appearing  red  in  acid,  violet  in  neutral,  and  blue 
in  alkaline  solutions. 

Instead  of  soda  test  liquor  a  solution  of  ammonia  is  sometimes 
used  to  saturate  the  acid.  The  solution  is  prepared  by  adding 
water  to  concentrated  ammonia  till  the  specific  gravity  is  0.992  ; 
1000  grains  of  this  dilute  ammonia  contain  one  equivalent  of  am- 
monia, which  is  capable  of  saturating  one  equivalent  of  acetic 
acid.  The  application  of  this  test  is  similar  to  that  already  de- 
scribed. 

There  is  some  difficulty  in  preserving  the  dilute  ammonia  of 
the  same  strength,  which  is  an  objection  to  its  use ;  but  a  uni- 
formity of  concentration  may  be  insured  by  introducing  into  the 
bottle  two  glass  hydrometer  bulbs  so  adjusted  that  one  remains 
barely  touching  at  the  bottom,  and  the  other  floats  just  under  the 
surface  of  the  liquid  as  long  as  the  test  liquor  retains  the  proper 
strength.  If  a  part  of  the  ammonia  volatilizes,  the  specific 
gravity  of  the  liquor  will  become  proportionally  greater,  and  the 
glass  bulbs  rise ;  the  lower  one  higher  from  the  bottom,  and  the 
upper  one  partly  above  the  surface.  When  this  happens,  more 
strong  ammonia  is  added,  till  the  hydrostatic  drops  are  properly 
readjusted. 


208 


VINEGAR,   CIDER,   AND   FRUIT- WINES. 


Fig.  48. 


Determinations  of  acetic  acid  by  titration  having  to  be  fre- 
quently executed  in  a  vinegar  factory  it  is  advisable  to  use  an 
apparatus  which  will  facilitate  the  operation.  Such  an  ap- 
paratus is  shown  in  Fig.  48.  Upon  a  table  stands  a  two-liter 
flask  holding  the  normal  soda  solution.  The 
flask  is  closed  air-tight  by  a  cork  provided 
with  three  perforations.  In  one  of  these  per- 
forations is  inserted  a  glass-tube,  A,  in  the 
lower  end  of  which  is  a  stopper  of  cotton  upon 
which  are  placed  small  pieces  of  burnt  lime. 
On  top,  the  tube  is  closed  by  a  glass-tube  drawn 
out  to  a  fine  point.  Through  another  of  these 
perforations  passes  a  glass-tube,  jR,  bent  twice 
at  a  right  angle  and  reaching  to  the  bottom  of 
the  flask ;  the  portion  of  this  tube  outside  of 
the  flask,  as  will  be  seen  in  the  illustration,  is 
somewhat  longer  than  that  in  the  flask,  and, 
consequently,  the  tube  forms  a  siphon.  The 
outside  portion  of  this  tube  is  connected  by  a 
short  rubber  tube  with  the  upper  portion  of 
the  burette  B.  The  latter  is  secured  in  a  ver- 
tical position  by  two  rods  placed  on  the  stand 
holding  the  flask.  Below  the  burette  is  con- 
nected with  a  short  rubber  tube  in  which  is  in- 
serted a  glass-tube  drawn  out  to  a  fine  point. 
On  the  side  near  the  top  of  the  burette  is  a  small  tube  bent  at  a 
right  angle,  which  is  connected  by  a  short  rubber  tube  with  the 
tube  L,  the  latter  reaching  only  to  below  the  edge  of  the  cork. 
Above  and  below  the  burette  is  closed  by  the  clips  Q  and  QL. 

For  working  with  the  apparatus  the  flask  is  filled  with  normal 
soda  solution  and  the  cork  inserted  air-tight  after  removing  from 
it  the  tube  A  and  substituting  for  it  a  small  glass-tube.  Now 
open  the  upper  clip  Q  and  blow  vigorously  through  the  glass- 
tube  substituted  for  A,  whereby  the  fluid  is  forced  through  the 
tube  R  into  the  burette.  This  being  done  cease  to  press  upon  Q, 
whereby  the  latter  closes  and  stops  a  further  discharge  of  the 
fluid.  The  tube,  A,  is  then  placed  in  position.  By  now  pressing 
on  the  clip  Q  the  fluid  passes  into  the  burette,  the  air  contained 


EXAMINATION   OF   VINEGAE.  209 

in  the  latter  entering  the  flask  through  the  tube  L.  The  burette 
being  emptied  by  the  discharge  of  the  fluid  through  Q19  it  is  re- 
filled for  another  determination  of  acid  by  simply  pressing  on  Q, 
and  this  can  be  repeated  as  long  as  the  flask  contains  soda  solu- 
tion. 

In  discharging  the  fluid  from  the  burette  by  opening  Qv  air 
from  the  outside  passes  into  the  apparatus  through  A.  In  doing 
so  it  must,  however,  pass  through  the  line  which  fixes  the  car- 
bonic acid  contained  in  it,  so  that  the  fluid  in  the  flask  remains 
free  from  carbonic  acid  even  after  standing  for  months. 

The  calculation  of  the  quantity  of  acetic  acid  present  in 
the  vinegar  examined  is  made  as  shown  by  the  following  ex- 
ample : — 

For  10  cubic  centimetres  of  vinegar  were  consumed  70  cubic 
centimetres  of  decinormal  soda  solution. 

One  cubic  centimetre  of  decinormal  soda  solution  being  equal 
to  0.006  gramme  of  acetic  acid,  hence  70  cubic  centimetres 
0.42  gramme. 

Now,  as  10  cubic  centimetres  contain  0.42  gramme  of  acetic 
acid,  100  cubic  centimetres  contain  10  times  0.42  gramme  —  4.2 
grammes  of  acetic  acid;  or  the  vinegar  examined  contains  4.2  per 
cent,  by  weight  of  acetic  acid. 


CHAPTER   XX. 

EXAMINATION  OF  VINEGAR  AS  TO  THE  PRESENCE  OF  FOR- 
EIGN ACIDS  AND  OF  METALS,  AS  WELL  AS  TO  ITS  DERIVA- 
TION. 

Detection  of  Acids. 

SOME  unscrupulous  manufacturers,  in  order  to  pass  off  weak 
or  inferior  vinegars,  adulterate  them  with  mineral  acids.  Such 
adulteration  is  not  only  a  fraud,  but  dangerous  to  health,  and  it 
is  necessary  to  indicate  the  means  by  which  such  additions  can 
be  detected. 
14 


210  VINEGAR,    CIDER,   AND   FRUIT-WINES. 

Sulphuric  acid — Add  to  a  sample  of  the  vinegar  a  few  drops 
of  a  solution  of  barium  chloride.  If  the  vinegar  becomes  slightly 
cloudy,  the  impurities  are  due  to  sulphates  naturally  present  in 
the  water  or  in  the  substances  from  which  the  vinegar  has  been 
made.  A  heavy  white  cloud  slow  in  subsiding  will  indicate  free 
sulphuric  acid  in  small  proportion.  If  the  quantity  of  sulphuric 
acid  is  more  than  a  thousandth,  the  sulphate  of  baryta  produces  a 
precipitate  and  falls  rapidly  to  the  bottom  of  the  test-glass. 

The  presence  of  free  sulphuric  acid  in  vinegar  can  also  be  de- 
termined by  coating  a  porcelain  plate  with  strong  sugar  solution 
and  allowing  the  latter  to  dry  up.  By  bringing  a  few  drops  of 
vinegar  to  be  examined  upon  the  plate  and  placing  the  latter  in 
a  moderately  warm  place,  pure  vinegar  evaporates,  leaving  a 
slightly  brownish  stain ;  vinegar  containing  free  sulphuric  acid 
leaves  a  dark-brown  stain  which  on  heating  the  plate  turns 
black. 

The  presence  of  free  sulphuric  acid  in  vinegar  can  be  deter- 
mined with  still  greater  sharpness  by  the  following  test :  Divide 
a  piece  of  starch  the  size  of  a  grain  of  wheat  in  50  cubic  centi- 
metres of  vinegar  and  reduce  the  fluid  one-half  by  boiling.  To 
the  clear  fluid  cooled  to  the  ordinary  temperature  add  a  drop  of  a 
solution  of  iodine  in  spirits  of  wine.  Vinegar  containing  no  free 
sulphuric  acid  at  once  acquires  a  blue  coloration  ;  if  free  sulphuric- 
acid  be  present,  the  fluid  remains  colorless.  This  test  is  based 
upon  the  fact  that  starch  by  continued  boiling  with  sulphuric  acid 
is  converted  into  dextrin  and  finally  into  sugar.  Neither  of  these 
bodies  reacts  upon  iodine,  while  a  very  small  quantity  of  starch 
gives  with  iodine  the  characteristic  blue  coloration. 

Hydrochloric  acid.  Take  about  100  cubic  centimetres  of  the 
vinegar  to  be  tested  and  distill  off  one-half  by  means  of  the  ap- 
paratus Fig.  43,  p.  200.  Compound  the  fluid  distilled  off  with  a 
few  drops  of  solution  of  nitrate  of  silver.  In  the  presence  of 
hydrochloric  acid  a  white,  caseous  precipitate  is  immediately 
formed  which  consists  of  chloride  of  silver  and  dissolves  in  liquid 
ammonia  added  in  excess. 

Nitric  acid  is  not  a  frequent  adulteration.  It  is  detected  by 
saturating  with  carbonate  of  sodium  or  of  potassium  several 
ounces  of  vinegar  and  evaporating  the  whole  to  dryness.  The 


EXAMINATION   OF   VINEGAR.  211 

addition  of  sulphuric  acid  and  copper  turnings  will  cause  the 
evolution  of  nitrous  vapors  if  nitric  acid  be  present. 

Lactic  acid.  In  many  varieties  of  vinegar  small  quantities  of 
lactic  acid  occur,  which  can  be  detected  by  slowly  evaporating 
1 00  cubic  centimetres  of  vinegar  in  a  porcelain  dish  until  but  a 
few  drops  remain.  If  these  drops  show  a  very  strong  pure  acid 
taste,  the  vinegar  examined  contains  lactic  acid.  The  presence  of 
lactic  acid  is,  however,  not  due  to  an  intentional  addition,  but  to 
the  material  used  in  the  manufacture  of  the  vinegar,  that  prepared 
from  grain^  malt,  or  beer  always  containing  it. 

Sulphurous  acid.  This  acid  occurs  only  in  vinegar  prepared 
by  fermentation  when  stored  in  freshly  sulphured  barrels.  It 
may,  however,  occur  in  vinegar  whose  content  of  acetic  acid  has 
been  increased  by  the  addition  of  high  graded  acetic  acid  prepared 
from  wood-vinegar.  The  most  simple  method  of  detecting  the 
presence  of  sulphurous  acid  is  by  placing  100  cubic  centimetres 
of  the  vinegar  to  be  examined  in  a  glass-distilling  apparatus,  and 
connecting  the  latter  by  a  gas-tube  with  a  vessel  containing  50 
cubic  centimetres  of  pure  water  compounded  with  about  10  drops 
of  nitric  acid.  After  distilling  over  ^  of  the  vinegar  the  acidu- 
lated water  is  heated  to  boiling  for  a  few  minutes  and  solution  of 
barium  chloride  added.  If  the  vinegar  contains  sulphurous  acid, 
a  heavy  white  precipitate  is  formed. 

Detection  of  Petals. 

The  occurrence  of  metals  in  vinegar  is  due  to  the  vessels  em- 
ployed in  the  manufacture  or  the  storage,  and,  hence,  the  use  of 
metallic  utensils,  such  as  stop-cocks,  pumps,  etc.,  should  be  avoided 
as  much  as  possible.  Besides  iron,  copper,  zinc,  and  tin  are  occa- 
sionally found  in  vinegar. 

Iron.  The  presence  of  this  metal  imparts  a  black  color  to  the 
vinegar,  which  is  increased  by  a  few  drops  of  tincture  of  gall-nuts. 
If  the  color  of  vinegar  compounded  wTith  a  few  drops  of  solution 
of  tannin  is  not  changed  after  standing  a  few  hours,  the  vinegar 
contains  no  iron,  or  only  so  small  a  quantity  as  to  be  of  no  im- 
portance. 

Copper.     While  the  presence  of  a  small  quantity  of  iron  is  of 


212  VINEGAR,   CIDER,    AND   FRUIT-WINES. 

little  importance  in  a  hygienic  respect,  that  of  copper,  zinc,  or  tin 
is  more  serious,  the  combinations  of  these  metals  having  a  poison- 
ous effect  upon  the  organism.  Copper  can  be  detected  in  vinegar 
by  evaporating  to  dry  ness  about  1  quart  of  the  vinegar  to  be 
examined  and  dissolving  the  residue  in  a  few  drops  of  nitric  acid. 
By  compounding  a  portion  of  this  solution  with  ammonia  in 
excess  the  fluid  acquires  a  perceptible  blue  coloration  in  the 
presence  of  copper;  the  latter  can  be  shown  with  still  greater 
sharpness  by  dipping  polished  iron  into  another  portion  of  the 
fluid.  If  the  iron  becomes  coated  with  a  perceptible  red  film 
(consisting  of  actual  copper),  the  presence  of  this  metal  is  shown. 
Tin.  Evaporate  to  dryness  at  least  2  or  3  quarts  of  the  vine- 
gar ;  dissolve  the  residue  in  hydrochloric  acid,  and  conduct  sul- 
phuretted hydrogen  through  it  until  the  fluid  has  acquired  a 
strong  odor  of  the  latter.  If  a  precipitate  is  formed,  it  is  filtered 
off,  dissolved  in  strong  hydrochloric  acid,  and  the  solution  divided 
into  several  portions.  Compound  one  of  these  portions  with 
dilute  solution  of  chloride  of  gold  ;  if  after  some  time  it  becomes 
rod  and  precipitates  red  flakes,  the  vinegar  contains  tin.  The 
presence  of  tin  is  also  indicated  if  another  portion  of  the  solution 
of  the  precipitate  in  hydrochloric  acid  does  not  acquire  a  blue 
color  after  the  addition  of  potassium  ferrocyanide.  The  behavior 
of  the  fluid  towards  solution  of  potassium  permanganate  may 
serve  as  a  controlling  test ;  if  the  fluid  contains  tin,  the  solution 
of  potassium  permanganate  becomes  discolored. 

Determination  of  the  Derivation  of  a  Vinegar. 

The  examination  of  a  vinegar  as  regards  the  materials  used  in 
its  preparation  is  generally  effected  by  the  senses  of  odor  and  taste  ; 
there  are,  however,  many  easily  executed  tests  which  assist  the 
judgment  of  the  tongue  and  nose. 

Vinegar  prepared  from  dilute  spirits  of  wine  is  colorless  or  only 
colored  slightly  yellowish.  If  such  vinegar  has  a  dark  yellow 
color  resembling  that  of  wine,  it  is  generally  due  to  the  addition 
of  sugar  color,  the  addition  being  chiefly  made  on  account  of  the 
erroneous  opinion  prevailing  among  the  public  that  vinegar  clear 
as  water  or  only  slightly  colored  lacks  strength. 


EXAMINATION    OF   VINEGAK.  213 

Vinegar  prepared  from  spirits  of  wine  leaves,  when  carefully 
evaporated  in  a  porcelain  dish,  a  very  small  residue  of  a  whitish 
or  very  slight  yellow  color,  which  chiefly  consists  of  the  salts 
contained  in  the  water  used  for  the  preparation  of  the  alcoholic 
liquid,  an  accurate  examination  showing  it  to  consist  of  calcium 
acetate,  gypsum,  and  a  very  small  quantity  of  sodium  chloride. 
If  the  residue  is  of  a  dark  brown  color,  swells  up  when  heated, 
and  leaves  a  lustrous  black  coal,  the  vinegar  has  been  colored 
with  sugar  color. 

Beer  and  malt  vinegars  are  dark  yellow,  generally  with  a  red- 
dish shade.  On  account  of  their  content  of  dextrin  they  foam 
when  shaken,  and,  when  carefully  evaporated,  leave  a  brown,  gum- 
like  residue.  The  latter  consists  chiefly  of  dextrin,  and  contains, 
besides,  the  other  extractive  substances  occurring  in  beer  and 
malt  vinegar,  such  as  salts  of  ashes,  especially  much  phosphoric 
acid.  On  heating  strongly  an  odor  calling  to  mind  that  of 
toasted  bread  is  evolved.  At  a  still  higher  temperature  the  resi- 
due turns  black  and  finally  acts  like  caramel  :  it  evolves  pungent 
vapors  and  leaves  a  lustrous  coal. 

The  great  content  of  phosphoric  acid  characteristic  of  malt  or 
beer- vinegar  may  also  serve  for  the  determination  of  the  deriva- 
tion of  such  vinegar.  By  compounding  beer  or  malt- vinegar 
with  some  nitric  acid  and  a  solution  of  ammonium  molybdate 
and  heating,  the  fluid,  after  standing,  separates  a  yellow  precipi- 
tate, which  contains  the  phosphoric  acid  present  in  the  fluid. 

Wine-vinegar  is  best  recognized  by  its  characteristic  odor,  the 
latter  becoming  especially  perceptible  by  rinsing  out  a  large  tum- 
bler with  the  vinegar,  and  after  allowing  it  to  stand  for  a  few  hours 
examining  the  odor  of  the  few  drops  remaining  in  the  tumbler. 
The  greater  portion  of  the  acetic  acid  having  then  volatilized 
the  vinous  odor  becomes  more  prominent.  Cider-vinegar,  the 
odor  of  which  is  somewhat  similar  to  that  of  wine-vinegar,  can 
in  this  manner  be  plainly  distinguished  from  the  latter,  the  residue 
in  the  tumbler  having  an  entirely  different  odor. 

The  presence  of  potassium  bitartrate  is  a  characteristic  sign 
of  wine-vinegar.  By  evaporating  wine-vinegar  to  a  brownish 
syrupy  mass,  boiling  the  latter  with  some  water,  rapidly  filter- 
ing the  boiling  fluid  into  a  test  tube,  and  adding  double  its  volume 


214  VINEGAR,   CIDER,   AND   FRUIT-WINES. 

of  strong  spirits  of  wine,  a  sand-like  precipitate  falls  to  the  bottom 
of  the  test-tube,  which  consists  of  very  small  crystals  of  tartar. 
This,  however,  does  not  prove  the  sample  to  be  genuine  wine- 
vinegar,  tartar  also  being  contained  in  imitations.  With  a  suffi- 
ciently sharp  sense  of  smell  this  is,  however,  the  surest  means  of 
distinguishing  genuine  wine-vinegar  from  a  spurious  article. 

In  case  the  derivation  of  a  vinegar  is  to  be  established  with 
absolute  certainty  it  has  to  be  subjected  to  an  accurate  chemical 
analysis,  and  this  being  better  made  by  an  analytical  chemist 
onlv  a  few  hints  are  here  given  which  may  serve  as  a  guide  for 
such  analyses. 

In  a  vinegar  prepared  from  a  fermented  fluid  a  certain  quantity 
of  glycerin  and  succinic  acid  will,  as  a  rule,  be  present,  these  bodies 
being  ahvavs  formed  bv  the  fermentation  of  a  sacchariferous 

*•  « 

fluid,  and,  consequently,  when  found,  the  respective  vinegar  can- 
not have  been  prepared  from  an  alcoholic  liquid  consisting  only  of 
spirits  of  wine  and  water.  If  they  are  found  only  in  very  small 
quantities,  the  alcoholic  liquid  used  for  the  fabrication  of  the  vine- 
gar consisted  very  likely  of  spirits  of  wine  and  water  with  the 
addition  of  beer  or  fermented  whiskey-mash,  and  in  this  case 
small  quantities  of  dextrin  and  of  phosphates  will  also  be  found. 
The  total  absence  of  tartaric  acid  and  the  presence  of  malic  acid 
indicate  the  derivation  of  the  vinegar  under  examination  from 
fruit,  though  not  necessarily  from  apples  or  pears,  other  saccha- 
riferous fruits  also  containing  malic  acid.  A  content  of  tartaric 
acid  is,  however,  no  proof  of  genuine  wine-vinegar,  as  its  presence 
may  be  due  to  an  intentional  addition,  and  it  is  very  difficult  to 
arrive  at  a  certain  conclusion  about  the  genuineness  of  a  pre- 
tended wine-vinegar,  especially  in  the  case  of  cider-vinegar  to 
which  tartaric  acid  has  been  added. 

Should  pepper,  chillies,  etc.,  be  added  to  vinegar  for  the  pur- 
pose of  conferring  more  pungency,  they  may  be  detected  by  neu- 
tralizing the  acid  with  carbonate  of  soda  and  tasting  the  liquor; 
if  these  bodies  be  present,  the  solution  will  still  retain  the  sharp- 
ness peculiar  to  such  spices. 


MANUFACTURE   OF   WOOD-VINEGAR.  215 


CHAPTER   XXI. 

MANUFACTURE    OF    WOOD-VINEGAR. 

AMONG  the  numerous  organic  substances  which  by  distillation 
in  -closed  vessels  give  rise  to  acid  products,  wood  is  employed  in 
the  arts  for  the  manufacture  of  acetic  acid.  "Wood-vinegar,  or 
acetic  acid  from  wood,  is  also  known  when  impure  under  the 
name  of  pyroligneous  acid. 

Wood  essentially  consists  of  woody  fibre,  small  quantities  of 
salts  and  sap,  and  a  variable  quantity  of  hygroscopic  water. 
Woody  fibre  or  cellulose  constitutes  about  96  per  cent,  of  dry 
wood,  and  is  composed  of  C6H10O5;  in  100  parts,  of  carbon 
44.45;  hydrogen  6.17;  oxygen  49.38.  The  vegetable  sap  con- 
sists chiefly  of  water,  but  contains  organic  as  well  as  inorganic 
matters,  partly  in  solution  and  partly  suspended.  The  inorganic 
constituents  (the  ash  left  after  the  incineration  of  the  wood)  arc 
the  same  in  all  kinds  of  wood.  The  quantity  of  water  contained 
in  wood  is  generally  larger  in  soft  than  in  hard  woods.  One 
hundred  parts  of  wood  recently  felled  contain,  according  to 
Schubler  and  Xeuffer,  the  following  quantities  of  water : — 


Beech  ....  18.6 
Birch  .  .  .  .30.8 
Oak  ....  34.7 

Oak  (quercus  pedunculata)  35.4 
White  fir  37.1 


Common  fir  .  .  .39.7 
Red  beech  .  .  .39.7 
Alder  ....  41.6 
Elm  ....  44.5 

Red  fir  ,     45.2 


The  branches  always  contain  more  water  than  the  trunk. 

Wood  is  called  air-dry  when  its  weight  no  longer  changes  at 
an  ordinary  temperature ;  in  this  state  it  contains  still  1 7  to  20 
per  cent,  of  water.  The  latter  can  be  expelled  by  continued 
heating  at  212°  F.,  but  wood  thus  dried  re-absorbs  about  20  per 
cent,  of  water  from  the  air. 

When  felled  nearly  all  kinds  of  wood  are  lighter  than  water ; 
a  few  are,  however,  heavier,  but  these  are  the  harder  kinds  in  which 


216  VINEGAR,   CIDER,   AND   FRUIT-WINES. 

the  cellulose  is  so  closely  packed  that  very  little  room  is  left  for 
the  retention  of  air.  The  following  table  exhibits  approximately 
the  specific  gravity  of  various  woods  : — 


T           1 

0  47 

Ash  . 

.  0.64 

Fir  and  pine     . 
Beech 
Birch 

.     0.55 
.     0.59 
.     0.62 

Oak 
Hornbeam 

.  0.70 
.  0.76 

The  content  of  ash  is  not  the  same  in  all  woods;  it  varies 
considerably  in  different  parts  of  the  same  tree  and  also  with  its 
age.  According  to  Violet,  in  the  cherry  tree  the  content  of  ash 
is  greatest  in  the  leaves  (about  7  per  cent.),  next  in  the  lower 
parts  of  the  roots  (5  per  cent.) ;  considerably  greater  in  the  bark 
than  in  the  Wood,  in  the  former  from  1.1  to  3.7  per  cent.,  and  in 
the  latter  0.1  to  0.3  per  cent.  Saussure  found  in  the  bark  of  the 
oak  6  per  cent.,  in  the  branches  0.4  per  cent.,  and  in  the  trunk 
0.2  per  cent,  of  ash.  The  ash  consists  chiefly  of  carbonates  of 
calcium,  potassium,  and  sodium,  further  of  magnesia  and  the 
phosphates  of  different  bases. 

The  average  composition  of  100  parts  of  air-dry  wood  is  :  car- 
bon 39.6  parts,  hydrogen  4.8,  oxygen  and  nitrogen  34.8,  ash  0.8, 
hygroscopic  water  20 ;  and  that  of  artificially  dried  wood :  car- 
bon 49.5,  hydrogen  6,  oxygen  and  nitrogen  43.5,  ash  1. 

Decomposition  of  u-ood. — Cellulose  when  carefully  treated  re- 
mains unchanged  for  a  long  time,  even  thousands  of  years.  Wood 
is,  however,  subject  to  greater  changes,  though  under  especially 
favorable  circumstances  it  may  last  for  several  centuries.  In  the 
presence  of  sufficient  moisture  and  air  the  nitrogenous  bodies  of 
the  sap  are,  no  doubt,  first  decomposed,  and  the  decomposition 
being  next  transferred  to  the  woody  fibre,  the  latter  gradually 
loses  its  coherence,  becomes  gray,  then  brown,  and  finally  decays  ; 
hence,  wood  rich  in  water  decays  more  rapidly  than  dry  wood. 

Wood  to  be  preserved  should,  therefore,  be  as  dry  as  possible, 
and  the  nitrogenous  bodies,  which  can  be  but  incompletely  re- 
moved by  lixiviatiou,  be  converted  into  insoluble  combinations ; 
tar  and  one  of  its  most  effective  constituents — creasote — mercuric 
chloride,  blue  vitriol,  chloride  of  zinc,  and  many  other  substances 
having  been  recommended  for  this  purpose.  Moreover,  it  has  been 
successfully  attempted  to  produce  certain  insoluble  bodies,  such 


MANUFACTURE   OF   WOOD- VINEGAR.  217 

as  aluminium  and  copper  soaps,  in  the  interior  of  the  wood  by 
saturating  it  with  soda  soap  and  then  with  aluminium  chloride  or 
blue  vitriol,  or  such  as  barium  phosphate  by  saturating  with 
sodium  phosphate  and  then  with  barium  chloride,,  etc. 

By  heating  to  212°  F.  the  wood  remains  unchanged;  it 
yields  up  only  sap  constituents.  If,  however,  the  temperature  be 
increased,  for  instance  to  392°  F.,  a  small  quantity  of  sugar  is, 
according  to  Mulder,  formed  from  cellulose  in  a  closed  vessel, 
and  from  wood,  according  to  G.  Williams,  an  acid  not  yet 
thoroughly  known,  methyl  alcohol  (see  further  on),  an  oil  boiling 
between  277°  and  421°  F.  and  a  small  quantity  of  furfurol. 

In  the  presence  of  water,  wood  in  a  closed  vessel  is,  however 
already  decomposed  at  about  293°  F.,  if  this  temperature  be 
kept  up  for  a  long  time,  for  instance,  a  month,  the  wood,  accord- 
ing to  Sorby,  being  converted  into  a  lustrous  black  mass  with 
the  formation  of  acetic  acid  and  gases. 

According  to  Daubree,  pine,  when  heated  for  some  time  with 
water  in  an  entirely  closed  vessel  to  752°  F.,  is  converted  into  a 
mass  having  the  appearance  of  stone-coal  and  approaching  an- 
thracite in  its  behavior.  Baroulier  made  similar  observations, 
masses  resembling  stone-coal  being  formed  by  pressing  sawdust, 
stems,  and  leaves  together  in  moist  clay  and  heating  continuously 
to  from  392°  to  572°  F.,  so  that  the  vapors  and  gases  could 
escape  only  very  slowly. 

By  avoiding  all  heating  concentrated  sulphuric  acid  converts 
cellulose  into  a  gum-like  body,  dextrin,  which  by  diluting  with 
water  and  long  digesting  is  converted  into  sugar  (starch  sugar) ; 
when  heated  the  wood,  however,  turns  black  with  development  of 
sulphurous  acid  and  complete  destruction.  By  dilute  sulphuric 
acid  cellulose  is  converted  into  starch,  or  at  least  a  starch-like 
body  colored  blue  by  iodine  and  dextrin.  Wood  is,  however,  but 
little  affected  by  it  at  an  ordinary  temperature,  while  at  a  higher 
temperature  a  certain  quantity  of  sugar  (starch  sugar)  is  formed, 
water  being  absorbed  at  the  same  time.  This  behavior  has  been 
utilized  for  obtaining  alcohol  by  fermenting  the  sugar  with  yeast 
after  neutralizing  the  acid  by  calcium  carbonate,  for  instance, 
chalk.  The  unattacked  woody  fibre  can  be  used  as  material  for 
paper. 


218  VINEGAR,   CIDER,    AND    FRUIT- WINES. 

Concentrated  hydrochloric  acid  colors  wood  rose  color  to  violet 
red  and  then  rapidly  destroys  it.  Dilute  hydrochloric  acid,  on 
heating,  forms  sugar ;  but,  according  to  Zetterlund,  the  quantity 
of  absolute  alcohol  obtainable  in  this  manner  is  very  small, 
amounting  to  about  2.3  per  cent,  of  the  weight  of  the  wood.* 
By  macerating  wood  with  dilute  hydrochloric  acid  at  an  ordinary 
temperature,  the  cellulose  is  not  changed,  but  the  so-called  lignin 
seems  to  be  dissolved.  By  forcing  dilute  hydrochloric  acid  by  a 
pressure  of  two  atmospheres  into  trunks  provided  with  the  bark, 
and  subsequent  washing  out  in  the  same  manner  with  water,  and 
drying  by  means  of  a  current  of  air  at  98.6°  F.,  wood  acquires 
great  plasticity.  In  a  moist  state  wood  thus  treated  can  be 
pressed  together  to  one-tenth  of  its  original  volume. 

Hydriodic  acid  reduces  the  wood  to  several  hydrocarbons, 
water  being  formed  and  iodine  liberated. 

Concentrated  nitric  acid,  or,  still  better,  a  mixture  of  it  and 
sulphuric  acid,  converts  cellulose,  for  instance,  cotton,  into  gun- 
cotton  ;  wood  is  colored  yellow  and  partially  dissolved.  Dilute 
nitric  acid,  for  instance,  of  1.20  specific  gravity,  has  no  effect  in 
the  cold,  and  but  little  when  heated. 

By  bringing  cellulose  in  contact  with  dilute  aqueous  solutions 
of  alkalies,  it  is  colored  blue  by  iodine,  and  consequently  a  starch- 
like  substance  is  formed,  but  no  humus-like  bodies  ;  from  wood 
only  the  lignin  is  extracted,  the  woody  fibre  remaining  unchanged. 
By  heating  with  strong  alkaline  lyes,  or,  still  better,  by  fusing 
with  solid  caustic  alkalies,  acetic  acid  is,  according  to  Braconnot, 
first  formed  and  then  oxalic  acid.  The  latter  acid  is  frequently 
obtained  by  this  process. 

On  heating  shavings  with  sodium  sulphide  an  abundant  quan- 
tity of  acetic  acid  (sodium  acetate)  is  formed ;  the  addition  of 
sulphur  to  caustic  soda  seems  to  have  the  effect  of  preventing  the 
formation  of  oxalic  acid. 

<•  According  to  prior  experiments  by  Bachet,  it  is,  however,  claimed  that 
up  to  23  per  cent,  of  sugar  can  be  obtained  from  wood  by  boiling  10  to  12 
hours  with  water  containing  one-tenth  of  hydrochloric  acid. 


MANUFACTUKE   OF   WOOD- VINEGAR.  219 

Decomposition  of  Wood  at  a  Higher  Temperature. 

All  organic  bodies,  except  those  which  sublime  without  change, 
are  decomposed  when  exposed  to  heat  in  closed  vessels,  their  con- 
stituents interchanging  with  one  another  and  forming  new  com- 
pounds, which  are  of  sufficient  stability  to  resist  the  particular 
temperature  employed.  Thus,  the  elementary  components  of 
wood,  after  a  certain  amount  of  heat  is  applied,  arrange  them- 
selves into  combinations  quite  distinct  from  those  in  which  they 
originally  were.  Some  of  them  are  gaseous,  but  at  moderate 
temperatures  by  far  the  greater  part  are  liquid,  the  quantity  of 
the  latter  depending  entirely  upon  the  greater  or  less  degree  of 
heat  applied  in  this  distillation. 

The  main  cause  of  decomposition  of  such  an  organic  body  as 
wood  by  heat  is  that  the  strong  affinity  of  its  contained  oxygen 
for  carbon  and  hydrogen  and  the  comparatively  greater  stability 
of  the  more  simple  compounds  of  these  bodies,  cause  their  for- 
mation the  moment  there  is  a  sufficient  amount  of  commo- 
tion amongst  the  atoms  of  the  original  body  to  allow  them  to 
commingle  freely.  Heat  sets  up  the  necessary  vibration,  and 
those  compounds  are  at  once  formed  which  can  resist  without 
rupture  of  their  constituents  from  each  other,  the  multitude  or 
amplitude  of  the  vibrations  corresponding  to  the  temperature  at 
which  they  are  evolved. 

As  a  general  rule,  those  bodies  containing  much  oxygen  are 
decomposed  at  comparatively  low  temperatures.  Acetic  acid  is 
an  exception  ;  a  dull  red  heat  does  not  cause  its  constituents  to  fly 
sufficiently  apart  from  each  other  to  cause  their  total  separation, 
and  the  compound,  therefore,  remains  unchanged.  To  this  cir- 
cumstance is  due  the  large  amount  of  acetic  acid  which  is  pro- 
duced during  the  destructive  distillation  of  wood.  As  previously 
stated,  the  composition  of  cellulose  is  C6H10O5.  The  hydrogen 
and  oxygen  being  in  the  proportions  to  form  water,  the  with- 
drawal of  carbon  would  form  acetic  acid  thus :  2C6A10O3 — 2C 
=  4C2H4O2.  As  might  be  anticipated,  acetic  acid  is  amongst 
the  earliest  and  most  abundant  products  of  the  distillation  of 
wood,  and,  being  volatile,  escapes  decomposition  at  the  higher 
temperatures  employed  later.  As  the  distillation  progresses, 


220  VINEGAR,    CIDER,   AND   FRUIT-WINES. 

marsh  gas  (CH4),  olefiant  gas  (C2H4),  tetrylene  (C4H8),  and 
volatile  oils,  such  as  benzol  (C6H6),  toluol  (C7H8),  naphthalin 
(C10H8),  paraffin  (C20H42),  phenol  (C6H6O),  etc.,  are  given  off. 
The  actual  facts  which  are  observed  in  the  distillation  of  wood 
are  as  follows  :  1.  The  water  passes  off  which  is  extraneous  to 
the  wood  ;  2.  The  wood  itself  is  decomposed  and  gives  rise  to 
water  and  the  crude  acetic  acid,  which  is  next  eliminated;  3. 
Condensable  matters  containing  an  excess  of  carbon  forming  the 
tar  and  oily  substance  pass  over ;  4.  Toward  the  close  of  the 
operation,  carbonic  oxide  and  marsh  gas  are  evolved,  leaving  in 
the  retort  a  charcoal  similar  in  form  to  the  wood  introduced. 


Distillation  of  Wood. 

The  distillation  of  wood  is  carried  on  in  retorts  made  of  cast- 
iron  or  wrought-iron,  and  sometimes  of  clay.  The  latter  have 
the  advantage  of  not  burning  through,  but  it  is  difficult  to  keep 
them  entirely  tight,  a  number  of  small  cracks  being  formed 
through  which  a  portion  of  the  vapors  escapes.  Cast-iron  re- 
torts do  not  readily  burn  through,  and  are  but  little  affected  by 
the  vapors  of  the  acid,  but  they  frequently  burst,  and  defective 
places  are  difficult  to  repair.  Wrought-iron  retorts  gradually 
burn  through  on  the  bottom,  where  they  come  in  contact  with  the 
fire  ;  they  can,  however,  be  repaired  by  riveting  strong  boiler- 
plate upon  the  defective  place,  and  are  less  affected  by  the  acetic 
acid  vapors  than  might  be  supposed,  because  some  protection  is 
afforded  to  them  by  the  deposition  of  a  layer  of  coal  from  de- 
composed tar  vapors  and  gases  upon  their  interior  surface.  Ex- 
perience having  shown  that  wrought-iron  is  more  strongly 
attacked  on  the  less  hot  places  than  on  the  hottest,  it  is  customary 
to  provide  wrought-iron  retorts  with  cast-iron  doors  and  discharge 
apertures.  To  retard  burning  through,  the  exterior  of  the  re- 
torts is  coated  with  a  thick  layer  of  lime  or  clay,  or  with  a  mix- 
ture of  lime,  iron-filings,  and  water  glass.  The  riveting  must 
be  carefully  executed,  and  the  joints  luted  with  clay  or  trass- 
mortar. 

Form  of  the  retorts. — Clay-retorts  are  mostly  Q  -shaped  like 
those  for  the  manufacture  of  coal-gas. 


MANUFACTURE   OF   WOOD-VINEGAR.  221 

Cast-iron  retorts  are  either  cast  in  one  piece,  having  in  this  case 
a  cylindrical  form  with  a  circular  cross  section,  or  flat  pieces 
are  connected  together  by  screws  to  parallelepiped  boxes ;  the  lat- 
ter form  is  preferable  for  the  distillation  of  birch  bark,  which  fills 
up  the  room  to  the  best  advantage  by  placing  it  in  flat,  even  pieces. 

Dimensions  of  the  retorts. — The  size  of  the  retorts  varies  greatly, 
but  the  most  suitable  for  horizontal  cast-iron  or  wrought-iron  re- 
torts is  a  length  of  from  5J  to  6 J  feet  with  a  diameter  of  from  2  J 
to  3J  feet.  In  England  retorts  of  a  still  greater  size  are  in  use, 
for  instance,  wrought-iron  ones,  which  with  a  length  of  6-J  feet 
have  a  diameter  of  4J  feet,  and  cast-iron  ones  with  a  length 
of  from  8f  to  9J  feet  and  a  diameter  of  3  feet.  AVrought-iron 
retorts  are  generally  from  0.27  to  0.31  inch  thick. 

For  vertical  wrought-iron  retorts  Vincent  recommends  a  height 
of  6  feet  and  a  diameter  of  4  feet,  and  Gillot,  as  well  as  Rothe,  a 
diameter  of  from  4  to  5  feet  and  a  height  of  7 \  feet. 

For  rectangular  wrought-iron  boxes  :  length  4J  feet,  width 
2.62  feet,  height  3.28  feet.  For  rectangular  cast-iron  boxes : 
length  8.85  to  9.18  feet,  width  3.28  to  4  feet,  height  4  to  4j- 
feet. 

Position  of  the  retorts. — In  France  vertical  wrought-iron  cylin- 
drical or  rectangular  boxes  are  most  frequently  used.  This 
arrangement  allows  of  the  vessel,  when  distillation  is  finished, 
being  lifted  from  its  position  by  means  of  a  crane  and  inserting  a 
new  one  in  its  place,  so  that  the  high  temperature  which  the  brick 
work  has  acquired  is  utilized  almost  without  loss.  The  disadvan- 
tage is  the  inconvenient  filling  and  emptying  of  such  vessels,  both 
operations  having  to  be  executed  from  above.  To  facilitate  the 
emptying,  an  aperture  is  occasionally  provided  near  the  bottom, 
but  in  this  case  it  is  difficult,  on  account  of  the  high  temperature, 
to  make  the  aperture  tight  by  a  clay  luting.  Further,  the  va- 
pors escaping  from  the  lower  portion  of  the  wood  to  be  distilled, 
especially  those  specifically  heavier  than  tar,  rise  only  with  diffi- 
culty to  the  discharge  aperture,  and  having  consequently  to  re- 
main an  unnecessarily  long  time  in  the  hot  space  are  partially 
decomposed  to  permanent  gases.  Even  with  the  best  condensing 
apparatus  they  carry  along  a  certain  quantity  of  acetic  acid  and 
especially  of  wood  spirit,  and  the  non-condensing  portion  is  then 


222 


VINEGAR,   CIDER,    AND   FRUIT-WINES. 


only  used  as  fuel.  This  evil  could  be  overcome  by  providing  a 
discharge  aperture  for  the  heavier  vapors  on  the  lower  half  of 
the  retort ;  but  this  has  again  the  disadvantage  that  the  exchange 
of  the  hot  vessels  cannot  be  effected  as  rapidly. 

In  England  and  Germany  horizontal  retorts,  which  are  uni- 
formly surrounded  by  the  flame,  are  in  general  use.  To  prevent 
a  disadvantage  similar  to  the  one  mentioned  above,  the  retorts, 
however,  must  not  be  too  long,  as  the  vapors  from  the  front  have 
to  pass  over  the  glowing  back  portion  to  reach  the  discharge 
aperture. 

Vertical  retorts. — Fig.  49  shows  Kestner's  apparatus,  which  is  in 
extensive  use  in  France.  The  retort  a  has  a  capacity  of  3  cubic  me- 
ters (105.94  cubic  feet).  It  is  surrounded  by  flues  which  lead  to  the 
chimney  t.  Large  sticks  are  set  upright  in  the  retorts ;  those  too 
thick  should  be  split,  and  small  wood  packed  close.  The  retort 
is  closed  at  the  top  by  an  iron  cover  secured  by  screws  or  clamps. 

Fig.  49. 


The  products  of  distillation  are  condensed  in  the  copper  pipes  b, 
which  are  inclosed  in  wider  cast-iron  or  copper  pipes  d.  In  the 
latter  a  current  of  water  passes  from  e  through  the  connecting  pipe 
/  from  below  to  above,  and  effects  the  cooling  off  of  the  vapors. 
The  non-condensed  vapors  and  gases  are  conducted  through  c 


MANUFACTURE   OF    WOOD-VINEGAR. 


223 


into  the  fire-place.  The  pipe  conducting  the  wood-vinegar  and 
the  tar  into  the  vats  h  dips  somewhat  into  the  fluid.  From  the 
vats  the  fluids  are  pumped  into  large  reservoirs  placed  at  a, 
higher  level,  so  that  they  can  be  readily  discharged  into  the  stills. 

The  apparatus  is  not  movable,  i.  e.,  the  retort  remains  fixed  in 
its  place. 

Movable  retorts,  as  shown  in  Fig.  50,  were  first  introduced  in 
France.  They  are  entirely  surrounded  by  the  fire  gases,  the  fire- 
place being  closed  on  the  top  by  a  brick  cover  held  together  by 
means  of  iron  hoops.  The  vapors  and  gases  pass  out  through 
the  pipe  a  which  is  placed  on  the  side  immediately  below  the 
cover.  When  no  more  volatile  products  appear  the  lid  is  removed, 

Fig.  50. 


and,  after  interrupting  the  connection  with  the  condenser,  and 
closing  the  pipe  a  with  clay,  the  glowing  retort  is  lifted  out  by 
means  of  a  crane.  A  new  retort  already  filled  with  wood  is  then 
immediately  placed  in  the  hot  furnace  and  distillation  recom- 
menced. The  pipe  b  conducts  the  non-condensed  vapors  and 
gases  into  the  fire-place. 

In  modern  times  this  apparatus  has  been  modified,  as  shown  in 
Fig.  51,  and  in  this  form  is  in  general  use  in  France.  The  de- 
veloping pipe  for  the  volatile  products  has  been  transferred  to  the 


VINEGAR,    CIDER,    AND   FRUIT-WINES. 

lid.  The  fire-place  has  the  form  of  a  truncated  cone,  and  the 
retort  is  surrounded  by  it  only  to  about  five-sixths  of  its  height, 
while  the  upper  end  projects  about  one  foot.  The  movable  cover 
being  omitted  the  exchange  of  the  retorts  is  facilitated.  The 
brick  work  of  refractory  material  is  held  together  at  the  top  by 
a  strong  iron  ring.  The  bottom  of  the  fire-place  is  formed  by  an 
arch  below  which  is  the  hearth  whose  flames  surround  the  curved 
surface  as  well  as  the  bottom  of  the  retort.  At  the  top  the  fire- 
Fig.  51. 


place  is  terminated  by  an  iron  ring  placed  on  the  retort.  To  save 
fuel  the  fire-place  serves  for  two  retorts,  as  shown  in  the  illustra- 
tion. 

The  fire  burns  constantly  upon  the  hearth  ;  it  is  regulated  by 
means  of  two  registers  placed  in  the  upper  end  of  the  fire-place 
in  the  draught  apertures.  The  four  rectangular  apertures  below 
the  vault  introduce  the  gases  from  the  condenser. 

When  a  retort,  for  instance,  that  at  the  left  of  the  figure,  is  dis- 
tilled off,  the  register  and  gas  conducting  channel  belonging  to 
this  retort  are  closed.  The  retort  is  then  lifted  out,  placed  upon 
an  iron  wagon  running  upon  a  track,  and  taken  away  to  cool. 
Another  retort  filled  with  wood,  and  made  tight  by  a  clay  luting, 
is  then  inserted  by  means  of  a  crane,  and  the  register  and  gas 


MANUFACTURE   OF    WOOD- VINEGAR. 


225 


conducting  channel  are  reopened.  When  after  about  one  hour 
the  water  is  expelled  from  the  wood,  and  acid  vapors  appear,  a 
copper  pipe  is  connected  with  the  condenser,  and  the  joints  made 
tight  by  a  clay  luting.  The  gases  appearing  in  constantly  in- 
creasing abundance  during  distillation,  are  now  conducted  under 
the  second  retort  in  order  to  heat  it  sufficiently  towards  the  end 
of  the  distillation,  as  otherwise  the  charcoal  will  show  "  brands,  " 
i.  e.y  pieces  not  entirely  carbonized. 

A  retort  holding  2  cubic  meters  (70.63  cubic  feet)  of  wood  is 
distilled  off  in  8  hours. 

Horizontal  retorts. — Generally  two  wrought  iron  retorts  are 
placed  in  one  fire-place,  for  instance,  6  retorts  in  three  fire-places 
with  a  common  chimney,  as  shown  in  Fig.  52,  one-third  to  two- 
thirds  of  their  circumference  being,  as  a  rule,  bricked  in.  In  front 
and  back  they  are  closed  by  cast-iron  disks,  the  front  one  being 

Fig.  52. 


movable  so  that,  when  an  operation  is  finished,  it  can  be  readily 
removed,  and  replaced.  From  the  back  disk  a  pipe  leads  to  the 
condensing  apparatus.  For  the  back  disk  is  sometimes  substi- 
tuted a  conical  shoulder  which  ends  in  a  pipe  about  8  inches  in 
diameter  to  which  the  discharge  pipe  is  secured  (Fig.  54). 

Each  cast-iron  retort  has  a  special  fire-place,  and  the  cylindrical, 
as  well  as  the  rectangular  retorts,  are  bricked  in  only  at  the  bot- 
tom. The  brickwork  is  held  together  by  several  iron  clamps. 
The  retorts  rest  upon  the  arch  above  the  fire-place  in  such  a  man- 
ner that  they  are  not  directly  struck  below  by  the  flame  but  only 
surrounded  by  it  from  the  side  and  above.  It  is  also  advisable 
to  expose,  not  only  the  cylindrical  space  holding  the  retorts  to  the 
fire,  but  also  the  annexed  conical  one.  The  narrow  pipe  projects 
about  one  foot  above  the  wall. 
15 


226 


VINEGAR,   CIDER,    AND    FRUIT-WINES. 


In  Figs.  53  and  54  a  a  a  are  the  wrought-iron  retorts,  b  the 
hearth,  cc  the  flues,  d  the  chimney.  Over  the  somewhat  conical 
neck  of  the  retort  is  pushed  an  elbow  pipe  e  which  dips  into  the 
receiver  F.  The  latter  is  a  cast-iron  pipe  1  to  2  'feet  in  diameter 

Fig.  53. 


(according  to  the  number  of  the  retorts)  and  extending  the 
entire  length  of  the  oven.  For  the  neck  of  each  retort  it  carries 
a  tubnlure  5}  to  7|  inches  long.  The  object  of  the  receiver 
is  to  receive  the  products  of  distillation  from  all  the  retorts 


Fig.  54. 


and  at  the  same  time  to  hydraulically  close  the  elbow-pipe  of 
each  receiver.  Hence  the  vapors  not  precipitated  in  the  receiver 
can  continue  their  way  through  g  to  the  other  condensing  appa- 


MANUFACTURE   OF   WOOD- VINEGAR.  227 

ratus  h,  but  cannot  re-enter  the  retorts.  This  is  of  no  slight  im- 
portance, for  if  there  were  no  water  joint  and  the  vapors  should 
from  any  cause  suddenly  cool  off,  the  external  air  might  penetrate 
into  the  retort  and  the  latter  being  filled  with  inflammable  gases 
and  vapors  of  a  high  temperature  an  explosion  would  necessarily 
follow.  For  making  the  water-joint  it  suffices  for  the  elbow- 
pipes  to  dip  f  to  1  inch  into  the  fluid  in  the  receiver.  But  as  the 
fluid  constantly  increases  provision  must  be  made  for  its  discharge 
through  a  pipe,  placed  below  or  on  the  side,  into  a  collecting  vessel 
located  in  another  apartment.  The  charcoal  is  at  the  end  of  the 
operation  raked  into  sheet-iron  boxes  or  square  pits  sunk  in  the 
floor  and  lined  with  fire  brick ;  both  chests  and  pits  are  fitted 
with  close  fitting  covers,  since  if  air  is  not  excluded  the  charcoal 
from  its  power  of  condensing  gases  in  its  pores,  becomes  so  much 
heated  as  to  take  fire  spontaneously.  By  shutting  the  charcoal 
in,  the  absorption  is  so  far  retarded  as  to  keep  the  heat  below  the 
point  of  ignition. 

In  many  factories  the  charcoal  is  abstracted  from  the  carbon- 
izing cylinders  by  means  of  the  following  apparatus :  An  iron 
diaphragm  about  the  size  of  the  interior  of  the  retort  is  placed 
near  the  mouth  of  the  latter,  having  a  chain  attached  to  it  which 
runs  through  the  whole  length  of  the  carbouizer.  The  workman 
by  seizing  this  chain  with  a  suitable  instrument  draws  out  nearly 
the  whole  of  the  charcoal  at  once,  and  with  less  risk  of  breaking 
it  than  when  rakes  are  employed. 

Condensers. — ^Yood?  as  will  be  shown  later  on,  yields  more 
than  half  its  weight  of  condensable  fluids  and  among  them  some 
with  a  low  boiling  point.  The  necessity  for  good  condensation  is, 
therefore,  evident,  and  the  more  so  as  the  quantity  of  non-con- 
densable gaseous  bodies  is  very  large  and  with  incomplete  cool- 
ing would  carry  away  a  considerable  portion  of  valuable  bodies. 
Kestner's  apparatus,  Fig.  55,  answers  all  demands.  In  a  long,  nar- 
row trough  of  wrought-iron  or  wood  lies  a  series  of  straight,  wide 
copper  pipes,  with  a  gradually  decreasing  diameter.  The  pipes 
are  slightly  inclined,  so  that  the  fluid  running  in  at  the  highest 
point  flows  out  at  the  lowest.  Outside  the  trough  the  pipes  are 
connected  by  movable  elbow-joints.  One  end  of  each  pipe  is 
firmly  fixed  to  the  wall  of  the  trough,  while  the  other,  to  permit 


228 


VINEGAR,   CIDER,    AND    FRUIT-WINES. 


free  expansion,  sits  loosely  in  a  slightly  conical  socket.  The 
lower  end  of  the  last  pipe  divides  into  two  branches,  one  of 
them  leading  downward  and  dipping  into  the  receiver,  while  the 
other,  as  a  rule,  conducts  the  gases  directly  under  the  fire-place. 
There  should  be  but  a  small  space  between  the  collecting  pipe  «, 


Fig.  55. 


which  conducts  the  vapors  to  the  condenser,  and  the  first  conden- 
sing pipe,  as  otherwise  obstructions  might  readily  be  formed  by 
the  deposit  of  tar  dried  by  the  hot  vapors.  A  constant  stream  of 
water  is  conducted  through  6,  along  the  bottom  of  the  trough, 
the  heated  water  running  off  at  c. 

The  development  of  gas  from  the  wood  being  very  irregular 
and  by  no  means  in  the  proportion  desirable  for  the  heating  of 
the  retorts,  it  is  preferable  to  collect  it  in  a  gasometer  and  distrib- 
ute it  from  there  as  may  be  necessary,  instead  of  conducting  it 
directly  into  the  fire.  But  little  gas  is  developed  in  the  beginning 
of  the  operation,  and  much  towards  the  end,  while  the  reverse 
proportion  is  desirable. 

In  case  condensation  is  not  very  complete,  the  pipe  leading  to 
the  hearth  or  gasometer  is  more  or  less  attacked  by  acetic  acid 
precipitated  in  it  by  the  access  of  air.  To  prevent  this  evil  it  is 
advisable  to  place  on  the  pipe  small  receptacles  provided  with 
cocks  for  the  collection  and  discharge  of  any  fluid  deposited. 
These  receptacles  may  also  be  filled  with  quick  lime,  which  at 
least  fixes  the  acetic  acid,  thus  rendering  it  harmless  for  the  pipe. 
The  lime  is  from  time  to  time  extracted  with  water  to  regain  the 
soluble  calcium  acetate. 

To  further  cool  off  the  current  of  gas  and  render  the  vapors  of 
acetic  acid  carried  along  with  it  harmless  for  the  pipe,  Vincent 


MANUFACTURE   OF   WOOD-VINEGAR.  229 

uses  a  cylindrical  copper  receptacle,  d,  Fig.  55,  provided  with  a 
false  bottom,  upon  which  is  placed  a  layer  of  crystallized  soda 
from  2J  to  2J  feet  deep.  The  vapors  of  water  and  acetic  acid 
dissolve  the  soda,  and  the  temperature  thereby  being  lowered,  a 
further  portion  of  the  volatile  bodies,  especially  wood  spirit,  is 
precipitated.  By  distilling  the  fluid  thus  obtained,  the  wood  spirit 
is  regained,  and  the  residue  in  the  still  used  for  the  preparation 
of  sodium  acetate. 

For  a  condenser  for  four  retorts  of  a  capacity  of  4  cubic  me- 
tres (141.26  cubic  feet)  each,  Gillot  gives  the  following  approved 
dimensions,  provided  the  period  of  distillation  is  72  hours  :  The 
diameter  of  the  pipe  at  its  entrance  into  the  water  trough  is  15| 
inches,  and  at  its  exit  5f  inches  ;  its  total  length  is  164  to  180 
feet,  this  length  being  divided  between  6  straight  pieces  and  their 
elbow-joints.  The  vat  is  26  J  feet  long  with  a  depth  of  5J  feet. 

The  arrangements  suitable  for  the  carbonization  of  wood  having 
been  described  in  the  preceding  pages,  the  most  important  products 
will  now  be  more  closoly  considered.  Before  doing  this  a  few  re- 
marks as  to  the  most  suitable  varieties  of  wood,  and  their  con- 
stitution, may  be  acceptable. 

Oak,  beech,  hornbeam,  ash,  and  birch  give  the  largest  yield  of 
wood  vinegar,  less  being  obtained  from  the  conifers,  poplar, 
willow,  and  aspen.  On  the  other  hand,  the  conifers  as  well  as 
the  bark  of  birch  yield  considerable  quantities  of  volatile  oils. 

Woods  about  20  years  old  seem  to  be  especially  suitable  for  the 
purpose  of  distillation.  The  trees  should  be  felled  in  the  winter, 
and  the  wood  allowed  to  lie  for  six  months  and  not  over  two  years. 
It  should  be  protected  from  rain  and  snow.  To  facilitate  drying, 
it  is  best  to  free  the  wood  from  the  bark,  this  being  of  special 
importance  in  regard  to  birch,  the  bark  of  which  yields  about 
40  per  cent,  of  tar  and  empyreumatic  oil,  and  the  wood  only  2 
per  cent.,  hence  the  removal  of  the  bark  essentially  facilitates  the 
purification  of  the  wood-vinegar.  The  removal  of  the  bark  is 
best  effected  by  the  introduction  of  steam  of  about  one  atmospheric 
pressure  into  a  wooden  vat  covered  with  felt,  and  provided  with 
a  perforated  false  bottom,  upon  which  the  pieces  of  wood  rest. 
After  allowing  the  steam  to  act  for  about  three  hours,  the  bark  can 
be  readily  detached.  By  drying  the  air-dry  wood  in  the  semi- 


230  VINEGAR,   CIDER,    AND   FRUIT-WINES. 

cylindrical  space  above  the  retorts  (Fig.  54)  the  content  of  water 
can  be  reduced  to  10  per  cent.,  and  consequently  less  water  has 
later  on  to  be  removed  by  evaporation ;  besides,  the  distilling 
time  is  shortened,  and  a  larger  yield  of  wood-vinegar  obtained. 

Charcoal. 

The  substance  called  charcoal  is  not  pure  carbon;  it  containing, 
besides  this  element,  hydrogen,  oxygen  (together  with  traces  of 
nitrogen),  and  ash.  The  composition  of  charcoal,  and  conse- 
quently its  properties,  vary  very  much  according  to  the  degree 
of  temperature  to  which  the  retort  has  been  exposed,  the  duration 
of  heating,  and  the  variety  of  wood. 

By  heating  the  wood  in  the  retorts  the  hygroscopic  water 
escapes  first;  then,  at  a  temperature  somewhat  above  212°  F., 
wood-vinegar  makes  its  appearance  and  gradually  increases  in 
strength  until  its  maximum  strength  is  reached  at  424°  F.  ;  it 
then  again  becomes  weaker.  Next  the  formation  of  tar  begins, 
and  inflammable  gases  now  make  their  appearance.  If  the  opera- 
tion be  continued  to  the  end,  the  products  are  :  .black  charcoal, 
wood-vinegar,  tar,  and  gases.  If  distillation  is,  however,  inter- 
rupted when  the  greater  portion  of  the  wood-vinegar  is  separated 
and  the  formation  of  tar  would  commence,  charbon  roux  or  torrified 
charcoal,  i.  e.,  a  product  containing  the  greater  portion  of  the 
constituents  of  the  tar  and  the  gases,  remains.  Experience  has 
shown  that  torrified  charcoal  is  as  well  adapted  for  use  in  the 
blast-furnace  as  black  charcoal.  The  yield  is  about  forty  per 
cent,  of  the  wood  used,  and  being  firmer  and  harder  than  black 
charcoal  it  is  better  adapted  for  transport. 

To  a  product  intermediate  between  wood  and  torrified  charcoal 
the  name  red-wood  (roasted  wood,  bois  roux)  has  been  given.  It 
is  brown,  can  be  worked  like  wood,  is  but  slightly  hygroscopic, 
highly  inflammable,  and  has  nearly  double  the  heating  power  of 
wood.  Its  average  composition  is  :  carbon  52.6  per  cent.,  hy- 
drogen 5.8,  oxygen  (together  with  nitrogen)  36.6,  ash  0.4,  water 
(moisture  or  constitutional)  4.5. 

For  technical  purposes  charcoals  obtained  at  a  temperature  of 
above  51 8°  F.  are  only  available,  those  obtained  at  a  lower  tempera- 
ture containing  the  so-called  brands  with  a  content  of  carbon  of, 


MANUFACTURE   OF   WOOD-VINEGAR.  231 

at  the  utmost,  68  per  cent.,  of  hydrogen  about  5  per  cent.,  and 
of  oxygen  more  than  26  per  cent. 

With  a  distilling  temperature  of  464°  F.  there  remains,  of  100 
parts  of  wood  dried  at  302°  F.,  a  residue  of  50.8  parts  of  brands, 
and  with  a  distilling  temperature  of  518°  F.  37  parts. 

With  a  temperature  above  644°  F.  the  result  is  black  coal,  the 
quantity  and  composition  of  which  vary  according  to  the  tempera- 
ture. Between  644°  F.  and  810°  F.  remains  31.5  to  19  per  cent, 
of  charcoal  with  a  composition  of  from  75  to  81.6  per  cent,  of 
carbon,  4.4  to  2  of  hydrogen,  and  20  to  15  of  oxygen,  and  0.5  to 
1.1  of  ash. 

At  still  higher  temperatures  the  quantity  of  charcoal  decreases 
but  little ;  it  amounts,  for  instance,  at  the  melting  point  of  bar- 
iron,  to  17.3  per  cent.,  and  at  that  of  platinum,  to  15.  per  cent. 
The  content  of  carbon,  however,  constantly  increases  until  at  the 
last-mentioned  temperature  it  reaches  96.5  per  cent. 

Violette  further  confirmed  the  fact  long  known  that  the  degree 
of  carbonization  exerts  a  great  influence  upon  the  result,  slow 
carbonization  yielding  far  more  charcoal,  than  quick. 

The  variety  of  wood  also  exerts  an  influence  upon  the  yield  of 
charcoal.  At  572°  F.  there  were,  for  instance,  obtained  from — 


Oak    . 
Fir      . 



.     46  per  cent. 
.     40.7     " 

Aspen 
Beech,  alder, 
Ash    . 

birch     .... 

.     34.9     " 
.     34.4     " 
.     33.3     " 

Linden 

.     31.8     " 

Later  on  Violette  found  that  the  elementary  composition  of 
these  charcoals  varied.  There  are  contained,  for  instance,  in  char- 
coal from — 

Carbon.         Hydrogen.        Oxygen  Ash. 

(and  nitrogen). 

Oak  ....  67.4  4.1  28.5  0.2 

Aspen  ....  68.2  5.5  25.7  0.6 

Birch  ....  71.1  4.5  23.5  0.7 

Ash  ....  70.4  4.5  24.4  0.7 

These  figures  are,  however,  only  correct  for  charcoal  kept  air- 
tight after  its  preparation  and  immediately  analyzed.  Ordinary 
charcoal  contains  at  least  5  per  cent,  of  hygroscopic  water. 


232  VINEGAR,    CIDER,    AND    FRUIT-WINES. 

The  specific  gravity  of  charcoal  depends  on  the  carbonizing 
temperature.  The  specific  gravity  of  charcoal  from  bird-cherry 
carbonized  at  590°  F.  is  1.42,  at  810°  F.  1.7.1,  at  1873°  F.  1.84, 
at  2732°  F.  1.87,  and  at  the  fusing  point  of  platinum  2.0. 

The  power  of  charcoal  of  conducting  heat  and  electricity  also 
increases  to  a  remarkable  extent  with  the  increase  in  the  carboni- 
zing temperature. 

The  inflammability  of  charcoal  is  the  greater  the  lower  the 
temperature  at  which  it  was  prepared. 

Charcoal  possesses  the  property  of  absorbing  gases  and  of 
taking  up  liquid  and  solid  bodies  from  fluids,  for  instance,  fusel 
oil,  coloring  substances,  and  alkaloids.  Lead  salts,  for  instance, 
lead  acetate  and  nitrate,  are  decomposed  on  boiling  with  charcoal, 
the  latter  absorbing  the  lead  oxide  and  liberating  a  corresponding 
quantity  of  acid. 

Charcoal  also  absorbs  aqueous  vapor  from  the  air,  and  the 
more  the  lower  the  temperature  at  which  it  was  formed ;  the 
quantity  varies  from  4  to  20  per  cent.  Hence  the  charcoal  ex- 
posed to  the  air  contains  only  about  f  of  its  weight  of  carbon. 

Wood-  Vinegar. 

After  standing  for  several  days  in  the  previously-mentioned 
reservoir,  the  greater  portions  of  the  wood-vinegar  and  tar  sepa- 
rate and  form  two  layers,  less  often  three.  In  the  latter  case  the 
upper  layer,  which  amounts  to  but  little  and  may  be  entirely 
wanting,  consists  of  specifically  light  volatile  oils  holding  tar  and 
acetic  acid  in  solution.  The  second  layer  forms  the  principal 
mass  and  is  the  actual  wood-vinegar.  The  lowest  layer  is  tar, 
rich  in  specifically  heavy  volatile  oils,  especially  phenol  (creasote), 
containing,  however,  also  acetic  acid  ;  it  is  of  a  yellow-brown  to 
black  color,  of  a  syrupy  consistency,  and  specific  gravity  1.07  to 

The  layers  are  drawn  off  separately  by  means  of  stop-cocks 
placed  at  different  heights  on  the  reservoir. 

Wood-vinegar  is  a  strongly  acid  fluid,  generally  perfectly  clear, 
of  a  brown-yellow  to  red-brown  color,  and  a  strong  odor  (par- 


MANUFACTURE   OF   WOOD-VINEGAR.  233 

tially  of  smoke).     Its  specific  gravity  varies  between  1.018  and 
1.03.     When  mixed  with  water  it  frequently  becomes  turbid. 

Wood-vinegar  is  a  mixture  of  very  dissimilar  bodies.  Besides 
its  principal  constituent,  acetic  acid,  it  contains  several  other  acids 
belonging  to  the  series  of  fatty  acids  with  the  general  formula 
CnH2nO2;  further  wood-spirit,  acetone  (see  below),  metacetone 

C6H10O,  methyl  acetate  CJ?f?lo,   aldehyde,   dimethyl   acetal 

^2X1S  ) 

)  Of^TT 
C2H4    >  oQjj3?  furfurol,  allyl  alcohol  C3HGO,  small  quantities  of 

ammonia  and  of  methylamine  CH3,H2!N",  and  finally  plenols  and 
guaiacols  ;  besides  empyreumatic  resins. 

To  carbolic  acid,  one  of  the  plenols,  is  due  the  property  of 
wood-vinegar  to  preserve  meat  and  other  organic  substances. 

On  mixing  wood-vinegar  with  soda-lye  it  becomes  turbid,  but 
on  a  further  addition  of  alkali  soon  clarifies  again  and  acquires  a 
dark  brown  color,  a  brown  body  being  separated.  On  mixing  it 
with  5  to  10  per  cent,  by  volume  of  concentrated  sulphuric  acid 
it  becomes  turbid  and  after  24  hours  the  greater  portion  of  the 
tar  separates  in  fine  drops.  Potassium  bichromate  colors  wood- 
vinegar  brown,  and  nitrate  of  silver  is  reduced  at  an  ordinary 
temperature,  a  silver  mirror  being  produced  (this  reduction  is  due 
to  the  content  of  aldehyde  and  creasote). 

In  the  distillation  the  more  volatile  bodies,  of  course,  pass  over 
first;  they  form  a  yellowish  fluid  which  contains  wood-spirit, 
acetone,  etc.  Then  follows  a  turbid  slightly  acid  water  of  a 
yellowish  color ;  it  gradually  becomes  richer  in  acid,  but  remains 
yellowish  to  the  end.  The  wood-vinegar  boiling  in  the  retort 
constantly  becomes  darker,  and  finally  a  clear  dark  brown  fluid  of 
a  syrupy  consistency  and  of  an  acid,  and  at  the  same  time  bitter, 
taste  remains. 

In  order  to  understand  what  follows  it  will  be  necessary  to  give 
the  more  important  properties  of  the  most  valuable  constituents — 
wood-spirit  and  acetone — occurring,  besides  acetic  acid,  in  crude 
wood- vinegar. 


234  VINEGAR,   CIDER,    AND   FRUIT-WINES. 

Wood-Spirit  (Methyl  Alcohol),  CH4O. 

Wood-spirit  is  a  colorless,  very  mobile  liquid,  of  specific  gravity 
0.798  when  chemically  pure,  and  with  a  boiling  point  varying 
between  150°  and  160°  F.  The  specific  gravity  of  its  vapor  is 
1.12.  It  is  soluble  in  all  proportions  in  water,  ether,  and  alcohol 
and  is  a  solvent  for  resins  and  gums,  especially  when  it  contains 
a  small  proportion  of  acetone.  With  calcium  chloride  and  with 
anhydrous  barium  it  combines  with  cry  stall!  zable  bodies,  which 
are,  however,  immediately  decomposed  by  water.  Potassium  and 
sodium  dissolve  in  wood-spirit  with  the  evolution  of  hydrogen. 
On  cooling  the  compounds  CH3,OK,  or  CH3,OXa  crystallize 
out  which  are  decomposed  by  water,  wood-spirit  and  caustic  alkali 
being  formed. 

Pure  wood-spirit  does  not  become  turbid  on  being  mixed  with 
water ;  in  the  crude  article  turbidity  is  however  caused  by  the 
presence  of  various  hydrocarbons. 

Wood-spirit  is  chiefly  used  for  the  preparation  of  methyl  iodide 
and  methyl  nitrate,  both  these  combinations  being  employed  in 
the  fabrication  of  aniline  colors.  It  is  further  used  for  the 
manufacture  of  varnishes,  for  laboratory  lamps,  etc.,  and,  in 
certain  cases,  in  medicine. 

Acetone  or  Dimethyl  Kctone  (C3H6O). 

Acetone  is  formed  when  the  vapor  of  acetic  acid  is  passed 
through  a  red-hot  tube,  and  further  by  the  destructive  distillation 
of  sugar,  tartaric,  lactic  and  citric  acids,  etc.  The  best  method, 
however,  to  obtain  it  in  large  quantities  will  be  given  later  on  in 
describing  the  acetates  (see  barium  acetate). 

Acetone  is  a  very  mobile,  colorless  liquid,  boiling  at  132.8°  F., 
and  having  a  peculiarly  strong  but  pleasant  odor;  its  specific 
gravity  is  0.814.  It  burns  with  a  brilliant  flame  and  is  soluble 
in  all  proportions  in  water,  alcohol,  and  ether;  it  is  a  solvent  for 
fats,  resins,  camphor,  and  gun-cotton,  and  yields  crystallizable 
combinations  with  the  hyposulphites ;  it  does  not,  however,  com- 
bine with  calcium  chloride.  The  combinations  with  the  alkaline 
hyposulphites,  for  instance  sodium  hyposulphite,  are  insoluble  in 


MANUFACTURE   OF   WOOD-VINEGAR.  235 

the  excess  of  the  saturated  solutions  of  hyposulphites,  but  soluble 
in  water  and  boiling  alcohol.  By  boiling  such  a  combination 
with  an  alkaline  carbonate,  for  instance,  soda,  it  is  decomposed. 
If  acetone  is  left  standing  over  quicklime  for  some  time,  and 
afterwards  distilled,  mesityle  oxide  C6H10O  and  phorone  C9H14O 
are  formed ;  the  former  is  a  colorless  fluid  smelling  like  pepper- 
mint and  boiling  at  262°  F.,  and  the  latter  a  crystallizable  body 
melting  at  82.4°  F.  and  boiling  at  385°  F.  By  heating  acetone 
with  a  little  iodine  and  then  adding  alkaline  solution  until  dis- 
coloration takes  place  a  lemon-color,  crystalline  precipitate  of 
iodoform  soon  forms.  Methyl  alcohol  not  showing  this  behavior, 
this  furnishes  a  means  of  recognizing  a  content  of  acetone  in  wood- 
spirit. 

Determination  of  the  Strength  of  Wood- Vinegar. 

C.  Mohr  gives  the  following  method  :  Weigh  off  10  grammes 
of  wood-vinegar,  heat  in  a  beaker  with  about  3  grammes  of  pure 
barium  carbonate  until  effervescence  ceases,  and  filter.  The  solu- 
tion of  barium  acetate  is  strongly  colored,  but  the  carbonate 
remaining  undissolved,  very  little.  The  residue  after  washing  is 
dried  and  weighed  and  the  quantity  of  acetic  acid  present  calcu- 
lated ;  each  gramme  of  dissolved  carbonate  corresponding  to  0.609 
gramme  of  acetic  anhydride  or  10  grammes  of  wood- vinegar  con- 
tain 6.09  per  cent. 

The  quantity  of  undissolved  carbonate  can,  however,  be  deter- 
mined in  a  more  simple  manner  by  titration  with  normal  nitric  acid. 
The  latter  is  prepared  by  diluting  commercial,  pure,  colorless, 
nitric  acid  until  an  equal  volume  of  it  exactly  saturates  normal 
sodium.  Bring,  for  instance,  5  cubic  centimetres  of  the  commer- 
cial acid  into  a  beaker,  add  a  few  drops  of  litmus  tincture,  and 
then  by  means  of  a  burette  normal  soda  lye  until  the  color  just 
turns  blue.  If,  for  instance,  4  cubic  centimetres  have  been 
consumed,  the  5  cubic  centimetres  of  acid  must  be  diluted  to  40 
cubic  centimetres  or  125  cubic  centimetres  to  1  liter. 

The  undissolved  residue  of  barium  carbonate  together  with  the 
filter  is  now  brought  into  a  porcelain  dish  or  beaker  and  a  meas- 
ured volume,  for  instance  20  cubic  centimetres,  together  with 


236  VINEGAR,   CIDER,   AND   FRUIT-WINES. 

some  litmus  tincture,  added ;  the  whole  is  then  heated  until  the 
precipitate  is  dissolved  and  effervescence  has  ceased,  but  the  solu- 
tion retains  a  slight  red  coloration.  Now  add  drop  by  drop  nor- 
mal sodium  until  the  color  turns  blue.  If,  for  instance,  3  cubic 
centimetres  of  normal  sodium  have  been  used,  20  —  3  =  17  cubic 
centimeters  of  normal  nitric  acid  have  been  required  for  the  solu- 
tion of  the  barium  carbonate.  Since  1  equivalent  of  barium  car- 
bonate saturates  1  liter  of  normal  nitric  acid,  or  98.5  grammes 
of  the  former  1000  cubic  centimetres  of  the  latter,  each  cubic  cen- 
timetre of  normal  nitric  acid  consumed  indicates  0.0985  gramme 
of  barium  carbonate  ;  hence  in  our  example  1.674  gramme  of  car- 
bonate has  not  been  dissolved  by  the  acid ;  there  was  therefore 
dissolved  3  — 1.674  =  1.326  gramme.  And  finally,  as,  according 
to  the  above,  each  gramme  of  barium  carbonate  indicates  6.09 
per  cent,  of  acetic  anhydride,  this  wood-vinegar  contains  1.326. 
6.09  =*  8  per  cent. 

L.  Kieffer's  method  is  based  upon  the  following :  Dissolve 
sulphate  of  copper  in  water,  and  after  taking  a  small  portion 
(about  3-l-g-)  of  it  away,  gradually  add  to  the  remainder  ammonia 
until  the  pale  green  precipitate  at  first  formed  is  redissolved ; 
then  add  the  retained  portion  of  the  solution,  and,  after  shaking 
and  corking  the  flask,  allow  it  to  stand  for  a  few  hours.  The 
dark  blue  fluid  is  only  fit  for  use  when  the  ammonia  is  thoroughly 
saturated  with  oxide  of  copper,  i.  e.,  when  some  of  the  precipitate 
remains  undissolved.  The  solution  is  now  filtered  and  standard- 
ized to  normal  nitric  acid. 

By  gradually  adding  this  solution  to  an  acid,  for  instance  nor- 
mal nitric  acid,  the  oxide  of  copper  as  well  as  the  ammonia  is 
fixed  by  the  acid  and  two  soluble  salts  are  formed,  in  this  case 
nitrate  of  copper  and  of  ammonia.  If  finally  the  acid  is  saturated 
and  a  drop  of  the  blue  solution  be  added,  a  pale  blue  precipitate 
is  formed,  because  the  ammonia  contained  in  the  drop  combines 
with  an  equivalent  quantity  of  nitric  acid  in  the  nitrate  of  copper 
so  that  not  only  the  oxide  of  copper  dissolved  in  the  drop  is  pre- 
cipitated (as  hydrate),  but  also  the  quantity  combined  with  the 
nitric  acid. 

Thus  take,  for  instance,  5  cubic  centimetres  of  normal  nitric 
acid  and  add  the  blue  solution  drop  by  drop  with  shaking  from  a 


MANUFACTURE    OF    WOOD-VINEGAR.  237 

burette.  If  up  to  the  appearance  of  the  precipitate  3.5  cubic  cen- 
timetres have  been  used,  3.5  cubic  centimetres  of  the  copper  solu- 
tion must  be  diluted  to  5  cubic  centimetres  or  700  cubic  centi- 
metres to  1  liter.  This  forms  the  ammoniacal  copper  solution 
standardized  to  normal  nitric  acid. 

To  determine  the  strength  of  the  wood-vinegar  with  this  fluid, 
dilute  10  grammes -of  it  with  water,  and  add,  with  constant  agita- 
tion, copper  solution  until  turbidity  appears.  The  copper  solution 
being  standardized  to  normal  nitric  acid  and  the  latter  to  normal 
sodium,  the  quantity  of  copper  solution  consumed  is  evidently  just 
as  large  as  the  quantity  of  normal  sodium  would  have  been  if 
used  for  titration. 

Working  up  the  Wood-  Vinegar. 

Only  a  small  quantity  of  wood-vinegar  is  used  for  antiseptic 
purposes  and  in  medicine,  the  greater  portion  being  manufactured 
into  wood-spirit,  acetone,  and  acetic  acid,  as  well  as  into  acetates. 

There  are  two  methods  by  which  this  can  be  effected.  By  the 
first  the  acetic  acid  of  the  wood  vinegar  is  directly  converted  into 
acetate  by  saturating  with  hydrate  of  lime  (slaked  lime)  and  the 
wood-spirit  distilled  off.  This  can  be  effected  in  a  cast-iron  still, 
distillation  being  continued  as  long  as  a  fluid  specifically  lighter 
than  water  passes  over.  The  distillate  is  crude  wood-spirit,  and 
the  residue  is  the  still  impure  calcium  acetate. 

By  the  second  method,  which  is  in  general  use,  the  more  vola- 
tile portion  (about  one-tenth)  of  the  crude  wood-vinegar  is  dis- 
tilled off  in  order  to  obtain  wood-spirit  as  the  distillate. 
This  has  to  be  effected  in  a  copper  still.  If  the  crude  wood- 
vinegar  is  not  entirely  clear,  it  is  best  for  either  method  to  first 
pass  it  through  a  sand  or  charcoal  filter. 

By  the  second  method  the  wood-vinegar  is  subjected  to  distil- 
lation in  a  copper  still  of  about  106  cubic  feet  capacity,  Fig.  56, 
over  a  free  fire,  or  less  often  by  means  of  steam.  What  passes 
over  first  contains,  besides  water,  wood-spirit,  methyl  acetate,  ace- 
tone, and  acetic  acid.  The  vapors  are,  however,  not  allowed  to 
completely  condense  at  once  but  are  rectified  on  the  way  by  being 
conducted,  as  shown  in  the  figure,  through  two  or  three  rectifying 
vessels  arranged  in  the  same  manner  as  in  Pistorius's  alcohol 


238 


VINEGAR,    CIDER,   AND   FRUIT-WINES, 


still.     Fig.  57  shows  the  arrangement  of  the  rectifying  vessels. 
The  stop-cock  introduces  a  certain  quantity  of  water  which  passes 

Fig.  56. 


Fig.  57. 


from  the  upper  to  the  middle  basin  and  then  to  the  lower  one 
where  it  runs  off.  By  its  passage  through  the  basins  the  more 
condensable  vapors,  consequently  also  those  of  water  and  acetic 
acid,  are  condensed,  so  that  the  non-con- 
densed portion  which  is  only  condensed  in 
the  cooling  apparatus  6,  Fig.  56,  possesses  a 
certain  strength,  it  generally  showing  a  spe- 
cific gravity  of  0.965.  At  c,  Fig.  56,  imme- 
diately at  the  end  of  the  discharge-pipe,  is 
placed  a  small  accurate  aerometer,  so  that 
the  specific  gravity  of  the  distillate  can  at 
any  time  be  read  off. 

Distillation  is  continued  until  the  specific 
gravity  is  1,  all  the  distillable  bodies  having 
then  passed  over.  Before  being  brought  into  commerce  the  crude 
wood-spirit  thus  obtained  is  generally  subjected  to  purification, 
which  will  be  described  later  on. 

If  distilled  wood-vinegar  is  to  be  obtained,  for  instance,  for 
the  preparation  of  crude  lead  acetate,  distillation  is  continued, 
after  changing  the  receiver,  until  oily  drops  appear  at  c,this  being 
an  indication  of  portions  of  the  tar  now  passing  over.  Firing  is 
then  interrupted,  and  after  allowing  the  apparatus  to  cool  off 
somewhat,  the  tar  remaining  in  the  still  is  drawn  off  into  the  vat 
(1,  Fig.  56. 

The  tar  is  then  combined  with  the  upper  and  lower  layers  of 


MANUFACTURE   OF   WOOD-VINEGAR.  239 

the  crude  product  obtained  by  the  distillation  of  the  wood  in  the 
retorts,  and  either  brought  into  commerce  as  wood  tar,  or  further 
worked  to  obtain  the  substances  occurring  in  it,  such  as  illumina- 
ting oils,  carbolic  acid,  etc.,  or  it  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of 
wagon  grease,  lubricants,  etc. 

Wood-vinegar  can,  however,  not  be  entirely  purified  by  distil- 
lation nor  by  passing  it  over  freshly  glowed  charcoal.  Although 
seven-eighths  of  it  passes  over  entirely  colorless,  the  product  has 
a  strong  empyreumatic  taste  and  odor,  gradually  turns  brown  in 
the  air,  and  gives  brown  salts  with  bases.  Stoltze  has  proposed 
several  methods  for  the  purification  of  the  rectified  acid,  the  most 
simple  and  cheapest  being  to  add  5  pounds  of  finely  pulverized 
pyrolusite  to  every  100  quarts  of  acid,  keeping  it  at  nearly  a 
boiling  heat  for  6  hours,  then  digesting  it  in  the  same  manner 
with  40  pounds  of  freshly  glowed  charcoal  pulverized  and  sifted 
while  hot,  and  finally  distilling  off  to  dryness  in  a  shallow  cast- 
iron  still.  But  on  account  of  its  tediousness  and  the  necessary 
large  consumption  of  fuel  this  process,  though  frequently  modi- 
fied, has  been  almost  entirely  abandoned. 

According  to  Terreil  and  Chateau,  the  wood-vinegar  is  purified 
by  compounding  it,  according  to  its  more  or  less  dark  color,  with 
10  or  5  per  cent,  of  concentrated  sulphuric  acid,  whereby  the 
greater  portion  of  the  tar  separates  in  24  hours.  By  distilling 
the  decanted  acid  it  is  obtained  almost  colorless,  but  it  darkens 
somewhat  on  exposure  to  the  air,  and  by  saturation  with  soda  a 
slightly  colored  salt  is  obtained  which  can,  however,  be  discol- 
ored with  a  small  consumption  of  animal  charcoal. 

Rothe  employs  a  peculiar  method  for  the  purification  of  wood- 
vinegar.  The  greater  portion  of  the  tar  being  separated  by  stand- 
ing, the  wood-vinegar  with  an  addition  of  charcoal  is  rectified  from 
a  copper  still  The  pale  yellow  watery  wood-spirit  is  caught  by 
itself,  and  the  succeeding  clear,  but  strongly  empyreumatic,  distil- 
late is  pumped  into  a  vat  placed  at  a  considerable  height  from  which 
it  runs  into  a  purifying  apparatus.  The  latter  consists  of  a  cylin- 
drical pipe  of  strong  tin-plate  ;  it  is  about  26  feet  high  and  1J 
feet  in  diameter,  and  is  filled  with  pieces  of  coke  about  0.122 
cubic  inch  in  size,  which  rest  upon  a  strongly  tinned  iron  grate 
placed  about  1J  feet  above  the  bottom  of  the  pipe.  Over  this 


240  VINEGAR,    CIDERj 

column  of  coke  the  wood-vinegar  is  poured  in  an  uninterrupted 
fine  spray,  while  in  the  space  between  the  bottom  and  the  grate  a 
slow  current  of  air  heated  to  104°  F.  is  constantly  blown  in 
through  a  nozzle.  The  empyreumatic  oils  mixed  with  the  wood- 
vinegar  are  oxidized  by  the  oxygen  of  the  warm  air,  and,  in  con- 
sequence, the  temperature  in  the  interior  of  the  column  of  coke  rises 
to  122°  F.,  and  more.  (The  pipe  is  protected  from  cooling  oif  by 
a  thick  layer  of  felt.)  The  products  of  the  oxidation  of  the 
empyreumatic  oils  are  partially  of  a  resinous  nature  and  adhere 
to  the  coke,  and  partially  volatile.  The  acetic  acid  running  oif 
through  an  S -shaped  pipe  on  the  bottom  of  the  pipe  is  clear,  of  a 
pure  acid  taste  and  suitable  for  the  preparation  of  all  the  acetates 
as  well  as  of  acetic  acid.  The  very  slight  empyreumatic  odor 
completely  disappears  by  forcing  the  product  through  a  pipe  filled 
with  pieces  of  animal  charcoal  freed  from  lime.  The  vinegar  thus 
obtained  is  used  for  the  table.  Though  a  quantity  of  acetic  acid 
is  carried  off  in  the  form  of  vapor  by  the  warm  dry  current  of 
air,  this  loss  can  be  prevented  by  passing  the  air  through  another 
pipe  filled  with  calcined  soda  or  lime. 

For  obtaining  acetic  acid  for  technical  purposes,  for  instance, 
for  the  preparation  of  aniline,  acetate  of  lead,  white  lead,  verdi- 
gris, etc.,  where  a  slight  empyreumatic  odor  and  taste  are  of  no 
consequence,  it  is  best  to  prepare  calcium  acetate  and  to  decom- 
pose the  latter  with  crude  hydrochloric  acid. 

By  saturating  crude  wood-vinegar  with  slaked  lime  a  dark- 
brown  turbid  solution  is  obtained,  and  much  tar  is  separated, 
especially  with  the  use  of  an  excess  of  lime.  By  evaporating  the 
filtered  solution  dark-brown  rust-like  flakes  are  separated  and  a 
nearly  black  non-crystalline  salt  of  a  strong  odor  remains  behind 
which  cannot  be  freed  of  its  color  and  odor  even  by  re-dissolving 
it  several  times.  Purification  succeeds  better  with  the  use  of 
calcined  soda  for  saturating  the  crude  wood-vinegar,  because  the 
sodium  salt  crystallizes  readily  and  the  greater  portion  of  the  im- 
purities remains  in  the  mother-lye.  But  even  here  it  is  not  pos- 
sible to  obtain  the  salt  pure  by  frequently  repeated  re-crystalliza- 
tion. The  calcium  salt  as  well  as  the  sodium  salt  can,  however, 
be  obtained  entirely  colorless  by  boiling  the  solution  with  animal 
charcoal,  though  it  will  not  be  completely  freed  from  odor. 


MANUFACTURE   OF   WOOD-VINEGAR.  241 

By  saturating,  however,  at  an  ordinary  temperature  distilled 
wood-vinegar  with  slaked  lime,  the  filtered  clear  yellowish  solu- 
tion becomes  turbid  after  standing  for  some  time  or  by  heating, 
and  a  yellow-brown  substance  is  separated  by  evaporation  ;  if  the 
salt  solution  is  then  sufficiently  concentrated,  a  quite  strongly  col- 
ored salt  is  again  obtained. 

By  slightly  acidulating  the  solution  of  the  calcium  salt  during 
evaporation  with  hydrochloric  acid,  a  small  quantity  of  a  yellow- 
brown  substance  is  separated,  the  previously  strongly-colored 
fluid  becoming  pale  yellow ;  by  evaporating  to  dryness  a  calcium 
salt  of  a  yellowish -gray  color  is  obtained.  By  slightly  roasting 
this  salt  and  then  distilling  with  hydrochloric  acid,  acetic  acid  of  8° 
B.  =  1 .06  specific  gravity,  i.  e.,  with  about  48  per  cent,  of  acetic 
anhydride,  is  obtained. 

Preparation  of  Crude  Calcium  Acetate. 

When  all  bodies  lighter  than  water  have  been  distilled  off  from 
the  crude  wood-vinegar,  the  retorts  are  allowed  to  cool  off,  and 
after  carefully  opening  the  stop-cock,  the  tarry  Deposit  is  first 
drawn  off;  the  wood-vinegar  is  then  conducted  into  a  large  vat 
in  which  the  saturation  is  to  be  effected.  When  the  point  of 
neutralization  is  reached,  the  solution  is  allowed  to  stand  several 
hours  for  the  impurities  of  the  lime  to  separate  on  the  bottom  and 
the  tarry  substances  dissolved  in  the  wood-vinegar  on  the  surface ; 
the  latter  are  then  removed. 

The  fluid  is  now  slightly  acidulated  with  hydrochloric  acid  (at 
the  utmost  4  pounds  of  crude  hydrochloric  acid  to  22  imp.  gallons) 
and  allowed  to  rest,  whereby  a  deposit  consisting  chiefly  of  phenol 
and  other  slightly  acid  substances  is  formed.  The  clear  fluid  is 
then  drawn  off  and  evaporated  in  a  cast-iron  boiler  over  a  free 
fire.  The  tarry  substances  oxidized  by  the  action  of  the  air  and 
separating  on  the  surface  are  constantly  removed.  When  the 
specific  gravity  (measured  hot)  has  increased  to  1.116,  the  separa- 
tion of  calcium  salt  in  the  form  of  crusts  begins ;  these  crusts  are 
removed  with  an  iron  spatula.  From  this  time  on  heating  is 
carefully  continued  until  the  contents  of  the  boiler  are  converted 
into  a  thick  paste.  The  fire  is  then  extinguished,  the  calcium 
16 


242  VINEGAR,   CIDER,   AND   FRUIT-WINES. 

salt  decomposing  very  readily  at  too  high  a  temperature.  As  it 
is,  however,  impossible,  on  the  one  hand,  to  properly  observe  the 
temperature  in  the  semi-cylindrical  boiler,  and,  on  the  other,  the 
complete  dryness  of  the  salt  is  required  so  that  as  many  of  the 
tarry  substances  as  possible  remain  undissolved  during  the  subse- 
quent re-dissolving,  the  paste  is  removed  in  small  portions  and 
spread  out  in  flat  cast-iron  pans  several  of  which  are  heated  by 
one  fire-place.  During  the  drying  the  salt  must  be  thoroughly 
stirred  with  iron  shovels  to  prevent  overheating.  By  careful 
treatment  a  salt  containing  75  to  78  per  cent,  of  pure  acetate  is 
obtained. 

By  heating  the  calcium  acetate  in  small  cast-iron  cylinders  pro- 
vided with  a  good  cooling  apparatus  crude  acetone  is  obtained 
which  can  be  purified  by  rectifying  in  a  water-bath,  shaking  the 
distillate  with  saturated  solution  of  sodium  hyposulphite,  and  dis- 
tilling the  separated  crystalline  body  with  soda  solution  and 
dephlegmated  by  rectifying  over  calcium  chloride. 

Calcium  acetate  is  readily  prepared,  can  be  sent  long  distances 
in  a  dry  form  from  which  the  acetic  acid  can  be  readily  separated 
by  a  process  to  be  described  later  on.  Entirely  pure  acetic  acid, 
however,  is  not  obtained  from  this  salt,  and  it  cannot  be  used  for 
household  or  medicinal  purposes,  nor  in  the  fabrication  of  valuable 
chemical  products,  for  instance,  certain  aniline  colors.  Sodium 
salt  will  have  to  be  taken  for  the  preparation  of  acid  to  be  used 
for  these  purposes. 

Preparation  of  Crude  and  Pure  Sodium  Acetate. 

a.  The  wood-vinegar  freed  from  wood-spirit,  acetone,  etc.,  is 
saturated  in  a  vat  with  calcined  soda  (sodium  carbonate),  which  is 
gradually  added,  as  otherwise  the  escaping  carbonic  acid  causes 
strong  foaming  up.  The  tarry  substances  appearing  on  the  sur- 
face are  removed,  and  the  brown  fluid,  after  clarifying  by  standing, 
is  drawn  off  into  flat  cast-iron  pans  which  are  heated  by  the  fire- 
gases  escaping  from  the  carbonizing  retorts.  The  concentration 
of  the  fluid  and  skimming  off  of  the  tarry  substances  are  continued 
until  the  aerometer  in  the  pan  nearest  the  oven  shows  27°  B.  = 
1.23  specific  gravity.  The  register  is  then  closed  so  that  the  fire- 


MANUFACTURE   OF   WOOD-VINEGAR.  243 

gases  escape  directly  into  the  chimney,  and  the  first  pan  is 
emptied  into  the  crystallizing  boxes.  The  latter  are  oblong  sheet- 
iron  vessels  placed  alongside  each  other  and  slightly  inclined 
towards  one  of  the  narrow  sides.  The  emptied  pan  being  filled 
from  the  next,  and  the  latter  Avith  fresh  solution,  the  register  is 
re-opened  and  evaporation  commenced  anew. 

When  crystallization  is  finished  the  mother-lye  is  drawn  off 
into  a  vat,  and,  after  draining  oif,  the  salt  is  freed  from  the  still 
adhering  mother-lye  by  means  of  a  centrifugal.  The  crystals  are 
then  brought  into  an  iron  pan  heated  by  steam  and  re-dissolved 
with  just  sufficient  water  to  at  once  yiejd  a  hot  solution  of  28° 
B.,  which  is  again  brought  into  the  crystallizing  boxes. 

The  crystals  now  obtained  are  larger  and  of  a  pale  brown 
color,  and  moist  with  mother-lye.  After  draining  off  they  are 
moistened  with  a  saturated  solution  of  pure  acetate  and  separated 
from  the  mother-lye  by  means  of  a  centrifugal.  The  crystals 
while  in  the  centrifugal  may  be  again  moistened  with  a  small 
quantity  of  the  pure  acetate  solution,  and  are  then  obtained  suf- 
ficiently pure  to  be  at  once  distilled  with  sulphuric  acid.  The 
acid  thus  obtained,  though  not  entirely  pure,  is  much  better  than 
that  from  calcium  salt. 

To  obtain  entirely  pure  sodium  acetate,  the  pale  brown  salt 
obtained  from  the  second  crystallization  is  calcined,  or,  what  is 
more  simple  and  better,  its  hot  solution  filtered  through  animal 
charcoal.  The  salt  is  dissolved  in  water  by  means  of  steam,  so 
that  a  nearly  boiling  solution  of  15°  to  16°  B.  is  obtained,  which 
is  then  slowly  filtered  through  a  layer  of  animal  charcoal  the  size 
of  a  pea  in  an  iron  cylinder,  which  is  covered  with  thick  felt  in 
order  to  retain  the  heat.  When  the  charcoal  ceases  to  act  it  is 
washed  with  water  and  the  washwater  used  for  dissolving  a  fresh 
quantity  of  salt.  The  charcoal  is  revived  by  drying  and  glowing 
in  closed  cast-iron  pots  and  re-used.  The  aqueous  solution  of 
the  pale  brown  acetate,  together  with  10  per  cent,  of  its  weight 
of  bone-black,  can  also  be  heated  for  a  few  hours  with  constant 
stirring  in  an  iron  or  copper  boiler,  and,  after  settling,  decanted. 
The  solution  is  treated  with  animal  charcoal,  and  after  crystal- 
lizing and  passing  through  the  centrifugal,  yields  an  entirely  pure 
salt, 


244 


VINEGAR,   CIDER,   AND   FRUIT-WINES. 


According  to  an  older  process,  the  pale  brown  salt  is  melted  in 
its  water  of  crystallization,  and  then  roasted  in  not  too  large 
portions  and  with  constant  stirring  in  another  boiler  heated  to 
716°  or  752°  F.,  to  destroy  the  remnants  of  tarry  bodies.  The 
sodium  salt  will  stand  this  temperature  without  being  decom- 
posed, but  a  few  degrees  above  it,  it  will  be  decomposed  and 
charred  so  that  only  a  mixture  of  sodium  carbonate  and  coal  re- 
mains behind.  The  stirring  which  has  to  be  kept  up  constantly 
in  order  to  prevent  the  temperature  from  getting  too  high  in  some 
places,  can  be  done  by  hand,  but  being  laborious  work  it  is  better 
to  provide  the  boiler  with  a  lid  through  the  centre  of  which  runs 
a  mechanical  stirrer.  When  after  roasting  for  1 J  hours  the  tar  is 
destroyed,  the  fused  salt  is  thrown  by  means  of  an  iron  shovel 
into  water  in  a  hemispherical  iron  boiler  provided  with  a  lid  (Fig. 
58).  The  salt  is  thrown  into  the  gutter  a,  from  which  it  runs 
into  the  boiler  b.  The  lid  is  necessary  on  account  of  explosions 
which  are  unavoidable  in  throwing  in  the  hot  salt. 

Fig.  58. 


By  dissolving  the  roasted  acetate  in  water,  the  carbonaceous 
portions  remain  undissolved ;  the  solution  is,  therefore,  filtered 
through  linen  bags  c,  and  the  filtrate  collected  in  the  pit  d.  If 
necessary,  the  solution  is  further  filtered  through  bone-black  and 
then  evaporated  to  24°  B.  By  disturbing  the  crystallization 
small  crystals  which  are  scarcely  colored  are  obtained.  This  is 
effected  by  the  use  of  round  copper  crystallizing  vessels  with  a 
diameter  of  5.72  feet,  and  a  depth  of  about  10  inches  (Fig.  59) 
and  the  use  of  a  mechanical  stirrer.  When  crystallization  is  fin- 
ished, the  entire  mass  is  brought  into  a  copper  boiler  provided 
with  a  large  number  of  apertures  about  0.11  inch  in  diameter, 


MANUFACTURE   OF   WOOD-VINEGAR. 


245 


Fig.  59. 


through  which  the  mother-lye  drains  off.  The  crystals  are  finally 
washed  Avith  a  saturated  solution  of  pure  salt  and  passed  through 
a  centrifugal.  The  salt  thus  obtained 
is  entirely  pure ;  but  its  preparation 
requires  very  careful  and  skilled  work- 
men. 

b.  Since  the  reduction  in  the  price 
of  soda  the  method  of  saturation  de- 
scribed under  a  has  been  generally 
introduced.  Formerly  the  sodium 
acetate  was  prepared  by  means  of 
Glauber's  salt  (sodium  sulphate)  and 
lime.  Notwithstanding  its  many  de- 
fects, this  method,  which  was  introduced  by  Mollerat,  is  still  in  use 
in  some  factories. 

The  wood-vinegar  is  saturated  with  slaked  lime  and  the 
calcium  salt  decomposed  with  Glauber's  salt ;  gypsum  (calcium 
sulphate)  is  precipitated  while  sodium  acetate  remains  in  solu- 
tion. Or,  a  mixture  of  Glauber's  salt  and  lime  (for  5  parts 
of  crystallized  Glauber's  salt  1  part  of  burnt  lime)  is  employed 
for  saturation  and  constantly  stirred  while  the  wood- vinegar  is 
added. 

Crude  wood- vinegar  can  be  used  instead  of  the  product  freed 
from  wood-spirit,  the  distilling  off  of  the  wood-spirit  and  acetone, 
together  with  the  saturation,  being  executed  in  one  operation,  as 
follows  : — 

The  crude  wood-vinegar  is  distilled  in  a  large  copper  boiler  hold- 
ing about  106  cubic  feet  over  an  open  fire  or  by  means  of  steam. 
The  vapors  pass  through  a  pipe  into  a  similar  boiler  which  is 
heated  by  the  heat  escaping  from  the  first.  In  this  boiler  the 
mixture  of  Glauber's  salt  and  milk  of  lime  is  kept  in  constant 
agitation  by  a  stirring  apparatus  making  about  25  revolutions 
per  minute.  The  wood-spirit,  etc.,  which  is  not  fixed  in  the 
second  boiler,  passes  into  the  condensing  apparatus. 

In  order  to  see  whether  the  point  of  saturation  is  reached, 
samples  are  from  time  to  time  taken  by  means  of  a  stop-cock 
on  the  bottom  of  the  second  boiler ;  litmus  paper  being  first  col- 
ored blue  and  finally  red.  When  this  is  the  case,  the  flue 


246  VINEGAR,    CIDER,    AND    FRUIT-WINES. 

under  the  second  boiler  is  closed  by  a  register,  and  the  con- 
tents of  the  boiler  being  emptied  into  a  large  iron  trough, 
the  boiler  is  at  once  refilled  with  a  new  mixture  of  Glauber's 
salt  and  milk  of  lime,  while  a  fresh  portion  of  wood-vinegar 
is  brought  into  the  first  boiler,  etc. 

In  the  trough  an  abundant  precipitate  is  formed  from  which 
the  fluid  is  drawn  off  by  means  of  several  cocks  placed  at  dif- 
ferent heights.  The  wash-waters  serve  for  mixing  fresh  quanti- 
ties of  Glauber's  salt  and  lime.  The  solution  of  sodium  acetate 
is  evaporated,  and  further  worked,  as  given  under  a. 

This  method  is,  however,  inferior  to  the  one  described  under 
«,  because  much  fuel  is  required  for  the  complete  distilling  over 
of  the  wood-vinegar,  which  is  not  the  case  in  a,  and  further  be- 
cause the  substitution  between  Glauber's  salt  and  calcium  acetate 
is  not  as  smooth  as  above  supposed  for  the  sake  of  simplicity/ the 
precipitate  consisting  not  only  of  gypsum,  but  of  a  double  salt  of 
gypsum  and  sodium  sulphate  which  dissolves  with  difficulty. 
The  actual  process  is  expressed  by  the  equation  : — 

2(Xa2So4)  +  (C2H302)2Ca  -  2(C2H3O2Xa)  + 
Na,Ca(S04)2, 

which  shows  that  only  half  of  the  sodium  contained  in  the  Glau- 
ber's salt  is  converted  into  acetate,  the  other  half  being  lost. 
Moreover,  there  is  a  large  quantity  of  insoluble  precipitate  which 
has  to  be  thoroughly  washed  in  order  to  avoid  considerable 
loss ;  and,  finally,  the  solution  of  the  acetate  constantly  deposits 
gypsum  during  evaporation,  necessitating  cleansing  of  the  pans. 

The  mother-lye  from  which  the  sodium  acetate  has  crystallized 
out  contains  a  considerable  quantity  of  the  latter.  It  is  therefore 
again  evaporated  to  27°  B.  and  on  cooling  yields  crystals.  By 
repeating  this  concentrating  and  cooling  finally  nothing  more  crys- 
tallizes out,  the  whole  forming  a  crystalline  mass,  which,  by  absorp- 
tion of  water  from  the  air,  becomes  semi-fluid,  and  consists  of  very 
little  sodium  acetate  mixed  with  the  sodium  salts  of  the  other 
fatty  acids  previously  mentioned. 

Barre,  in  1869,  showed  that  besides  acetic  acid  the  following 
acids  occur  in  wood-vinegar :  formic  acid,  CH2O2,  propionic  acid, 


MANUFACTURE   OF   WOOD-VINEGAR.  247 

C3H6O2,  butyric  acid,  C4H8O2,  valerianic  acid,  C5H10O2,  and  caproic 
acid,  C6H]2O2. 

By  decomposing  the  above-mentioned  salt-mass  with  concen- 
trated sulphuric  acid,  a  black  oily  layer  consisting  of  a  mixture  of 
the  above  acids  separates  on  the  surface.  They  are  but  incom- 
pletely separated  by  fractional  distillation,  the  separation,  however, 
succeeding  better  by  converting  them  into  compound  ethers  and 
subjecting  the  mixture  of  these  to  fractional  distillation. 

According  to  Vincent,  100  parts  of  syrupy  mother-lye  are 
mixed  with  20  of  95  per  cent,  alcohol,  and  after  gradually  adding 
70  parts  of  concentrated  sulphuric  acid,  the  whole  is  allowed  to 
cool.  After  some  time  a  black  layer  separates  on  the  surface, 
which  is  taken  off,  and  after  shaking  with  weak  soda  solution 
until  it  shows  no  acid  reaction,  and  dephlegmating  over  calcium 
chloride,  is  carefully  distilled,  the  distillates  passing  over  between 
131°  and  136.4°  F.,  165°  and  170.6°,  203°  and  208.4°,  237.2° 
and  246.2°,  271.4°  and  276.8°,  and  323.6°  and  329°  being 
collected  by  themselves.  By  decomposing  these  products  with 
barium-water  alcohol  is  formed,  which  is  removed  by  evaporation, 
and  the  barium  salts  of  the  fatty  acids.  The  latter  are  crystallized, 
and  then  the  acids  separated  by  sulphuric  acid.  The  first 
distillate  yields  formic  acid,  the  second  propionic  acid,  etc. 

Manner  of  Obtaining  Wood  Spirit  (Methyl  Alcohol). 

Crude  wood  spirit  is  a  mixture  of  methyl  alcohol  with  methyl 
acetate,  dimethylacetal,  acetone,  inetacetone,  aldehyde,  various 
hydrocarbons,  acetates  of  ammonium  and  methylamiue,  and  free 
acetic  acid. 

These  substances  cannot  be  separated  by  fractional  distillation 
alone,  because  the  boiling  point  of  some  of  them  is  nearly  the 
same  (methyl  alcohol  152.6°  F.,  dimethylacetal  147.2°,  acetone 
132.8,  methyl  acetate  131°).  The  crude  wood  spirit  is  digested 
in  a  still  with  slaked  lime,  whereby,  with  the  development  of 
considerable  heat,  the  free  acetic  acid  always  present  combines 
with  the  lime  ;  ammonia  and  methylamine  are  also  evolved,  and 
the  methyl  acetate  is  gradually  decomposed  into  calcium  acetate 
and  methyl  alcohol.  (By  the  action  of  the 


Ot 


248  VINEGAR,    CIDER,    AND   FRUIT-WINES, 

with  a  boiling  point  above  212°  F.  are  gradually  formed  from  the 

acetone.) 

After  several  hours'  digestion  the  mixture  is  distilled  by  means 
of  steam.    In  Fig.  60,  a  represents  the  copper  still,  b  an  ellipsoidal 


Fig.  60. 


or  egg-shaped  vessel  which  serves  as  a  receiver,  and  c  the  rectify- 
ing apparatus,  consisting  of  a  series  of  Pistorius's  basins  (see  Fig. 
57,  p.  238),  into  the  uppermost  of  which  a  moderate  current  of 
water  is  conducted  ;  d  is  the  condenser. 

The  still  a  has  a  capacity  of  1000  to  1200  quarts  ;  the  steam 
pipe  placed  in  it  is  2  inches  in  diameter  and  32  feet  long.  The 
vapors  pass  out  through  the  wide  pipe  in  the  cover,  and  what  is 
condensed  in  b  runs  back  through  a  narrower  pipe  into  a.  In 
the  rectifying  vessel  or  rather  dephlegmator,  the  rising  vapors  are 
forced  to  pass  around  a  copper  disk  placed  in  each  basin  and  thus 
to  come  in  contact  with  the  surface  of  the  basin  cooled  by  water. 
From  this  it  is  evident  that  the  less  volatile  bodies  are  condensed 
in  the  basins  and  run  back  into  b  and  from  there  into  a,  while 
the  more  volatile  vapors  pass  through  the  swan-neck  and  are  con- 
densed in  d.  Much,  of  course,  depends  on  the  quantity  (and 
temperature)  of  the  water  running  into  the  rectifying  vessel. 

With  a  rectifying  vessel  consisting  of  seven  basins,  each  1.64 


MANUFACTURE   OF   WOOD-VINEGAR.  249 

feet  in  diameter,  and  with  a  correctly  conducted  influx  of  water, 
a  product  of  0.816  specific  gravity  is  obtained  by  one  operation 
from  crude  wood  spirit  of  0.965  specific  gravity. 

This  product  can  be  used  for  many  purposes,  for  instance  in  the 
preparation  of  varnishes.  It  is,  however,  not  entirely  pure,  it 
being  rendered  turbid  by  water  which  is  due  to  a  content  of  the 
previously-mentioned  hydrocarbons ;  it  further  contains  some 
acetone,  methyl  acetate,  aldehyde,  ammonia,  methylamine,  and 
is  not  fit  for  the  fabrication  of  aniline  colors. 

For  further  purification  this  rectified  wood-spirit  is  diluted 
with  water  until  it  shows  a  specific  gravity  of  0.934  and  is  then 
allowed  to  rest  a  few  days,  when  the  greater  portion  of  the  hydro- 
carbons has  separated  as  an  oily  layer  on  the  top.  The  clear  fluid 
is  now  again  rectified  with  an  addition  of  2  to  3  per  cent,  of  lime, 
whereby  a  distillate  is  obtained  which  does  not  become  turbid 
with  water  but  turns  yellow  in  time. 

But  neither  this  twice-rectified  Avood-spirit  is  suitable  for  all 
purposes,  for  instance,  not  for  the  preparation  of  methyl  iodide. 
To  remove  traces  of  ammonia  and  methylamine  and  to  precipitate 
the  last  particles  of  tarry  substances,  it  is  again  rectified  after 
adding  some  sulphuric  acid,  this  time,  however,  in  a  distilling 
apparatus  standing  in  a  water-bath,  whereby  a  temperature  of 
147.2°  to  152.6°  is  sought  to  be  maintained.  One  cubic  metre 
(35.31  cubic  feet)  of  wood  yields  2  to  3  quarts  of  methyl  alcohol 
which  is  not  rendered  turbid  by  water. 

For  the  purification  of  wood-spirit  on  a  small  scale,  the  above- 
mentioned  property  of  methyl  alcohol  to  form  a  solid  crystalliz- 
able  combination  with  calcium  chloride  can  be  utilized.  Mix 
the  wood-spirit  once  rectified  over  lime  with  dry  powdered  cal- 
cium chloride,  pour  oif  the  oily  layer  of  foreign  substances,  which 
separates,  after  some  standing,  upon  the  surface  of  the  solid  com- 
bination formed,  aud  heat  the  solid  body  in  a  water-bath  to 
212°  F.  It  is  not  decomposed  at  this  temperature,  while  the 
still-adhering  impurities  at  least  partially  volatilize.  Mix  the  dry 
residue  with  water,  whereby  the  combination  is  broken  np,  and 
distill  in  a  water-bath  ;  the  distillate  is  quite  pure  methyl  alcohol. 

The  examination  of  commercial  wood-spirit  extends  chiefly  to 
the  presence  or  absence  of  the  previously-mentioned  hydro- 


250  VINEGAR,    CIDER,    AND   FRUIT- WINES. 

carbons,  which  can  be  readily  ascertained  by  mixing  the  sample 
with  water ;  further  to  the  presence  of  acetone,  methyl  acetate, 
and  ordinary  alcohol,  the  latter  being  sometimes  found  as  an 
adulteration.  The  presence  of  acetone  is  recognized  by  the 
colorless  crystalline  precipitate  formed  on  shaking  with  a  satu- 
rated solution  of  sodium  hyposulphite.  The  presence  of  methyl 
acetate  is  shown  when,  by  boiling  the  wood-spirit  with  soda  lye 
and  subsequent  distilling  off,  a  residue  remains  in  which  acetic 
acid  can  be  found.  Ordinary  alcohol  can  be  detected  by  distill- 
ing the  wood-spirit  with  double  to  four  times  its  volume  of  con- 
centrated sulphuric  acid.  By  the  action  of  the  latter  upon  the 
wood  spirit  dimethyl  ether  (CH^O  is  formed ;  but  by  the  action  of 
the  excess  of  sulphuric  acid  upon  alcohol,  cthene  C2H4.  The 
first  is  readily  soluble  in  water,  1  volume  of  the  latter  dissolving 
37  volumes  of  the  gas ;  the  latter,  however,  dissolves  with  diffi- 
culty, 7  volumes  of  water  absorbing  only  about  1  volume  of  it. 
Hence,  if  alcohol  be  present  in  the  wood-spirit,  ethene  will  remain 
by  shaking  the  gas  mixture  with  its  equal  volume  of  water.  By 
adding  bromide  ethene  dibromide,  C2H4Br2,  a  colorless  oily  liquid, 
having  a  sweetish  smell  and  taste,  is  formed. 

Yield  of  Charcoal,  Wood-  Vinegar,  and  Wood-Spirit,  as  well  as  of 

'Tar. 

The  statements  as  to  the  obtainable  yield  of  products  resulting 
from  the  distillation  of  wood  vary  very  much,  which  is  but 
natural,  as  the  yield  depends  on  many  factors :  on  the  variety  of 
the  wood,  its  age,  even  on  the  soil  upon  which  it  is  grown,  the 
time  it  has  been  stored,  on  the  degree  of  dryness,  the  dimensions, 
the  position  of  the  retorts,  the  degrees  of  temperature,  and  espe- 
cially on  the  duration  of  carbonization. 

Stoltze,  in  1820,  published  experiments,  made  with  the  greatest 
care,  to  show  the  amount  and  strength  of  the  products  obtained 
from  the  distillation  of  several  varieties  of  wood.  The  quantity  of 
each  kind  of  wood  submitted  to  destructive  distillation  was  one 
pound,  a  quantity  suitable,  in  the  generality  of  cases,  to  form  a 
precedent  for  the  manufacturer  on  the  large  scale.  The  woods 
were  all  collected  at  the  same  time  of  the  year  (towards  the  end 


MANUFACTURE   OF   WOOD-VINEGAR.  251 

of  January)  and  only  those  of  nearly  the  same  growth  were 
chosen.  From  Stoltze's  table  the  following  figures  for  the  most 
important  varieties  of  wood  have  been  calculated : — 


Wood 
vinegar, 

Therein 
acetic                 Tar, 

Char- 

Gases, 

anhydride, 

coal, 

cubic 

pounds. 

pounds.             pounds. 

pounds. 

metres. 

100  pounds  of  birch 

44.9 

O    Q 

further  8.6 

24.4 

9.8 

"          "           beech 

44 

8.6 

9.5 

24.6 

10.8 

"         "           hornbeam  42.5 

7.6 

"       11.1 

23.9 

10 

"         "           oak 

43 

7.7 

9.1 

26.1 

10 

"         "           fir 

42.3 

4.2 

"       11.9 

26.6 

12.5 

or, 

1  cubic  metre  (35.31  cubic  feet)  =  750  pounds  of  birch,  yields 
333  pounds  of  wood- vinegar  of  20  per  cent.  =  66.6  pounds  of 
acetic  anhydride;  further,  64  pounds  of  tar,  181  pounds  of  char- 
coal, and  73  cubic  metres  (2578.06  cubic  feet)  of  gases. 

1  cubic  metre  (35.31  cubic  feet)  =  850  pounds  of  beech,  yields 
371  pounds  of  wood-vinegar  of  19.6  per  cent.  =  72.7  pounds  of 
acetic  anhydride,  80.7  pounds,  207.4  pounds  of  charcoal,  and  85 
cubic  metres  (3001.86  cubic  feet)  of  gases. 

1  cubic  metre  (35.31  cubic  feet)  =  950  pounds  of  hornbeam, 
yields  402  pounds  of  wood-vinegar  of  18  per  cent.  =  72.3  pounds 
of  acetic  anhydride,  105  pounds  of  tar,  225  pounds  of  charcoal, 
and  94  cubic  metres  (3311.8  cubic  feet)  of  gases. 

1  cubic  metre  (35.31  cubic  feet)  =  850  pounds  of  oak,  yields 
367  pounds  of  wood-vinegar  of  18  per  cent,  =  66  pounds  of 
acetic  anhydride,  77.8  pounds  of  tar,  223  pounds  of  charcoal,  and 
86  cubic  metres  (3037.17  cubic  feet)  of  gases. 

1  cubic  metre  (35.31  cubic  feet)  =  650  pounds  of  fir,  yields  271 
pounds  of  wood-vinegar  of  10.1  per  cent.  =  27.4  pounds  of  acetic 
anhydride,  72.6  pounds  of  tar,  138.5  pounds  of  charcoal,  and  80 
cubic  metres  (2825.28  cubic  feet)  of  gases. 

Gillot  has  confirmed  Stoltze's  statements  in  so  far  as  he  found 
that,  in  manufacturing  on  a  large  scale,  with  slow  and  carefully- 
conducted  carbonization  and  a  distilling  period  of  72  hours,  7  to 
8  per  cent,  of  the  (hard)  wood  of  acetic  anhydride  can  be  ob- 
tained. 


252 


VINEGAR,   CIDER,   AND   FRUIT-WINES. 


The  results  obtained  by  Assmus  in  manufacturing  on  a.  large 
scale  are  as  follows : — 


Which 

Or 

Yield 

yield 

acetic 

Char- 

Crude 

Crude 

100  pounds  of— 

wood 
vinegar, 

calcium 
acetate, 

an- 
hvdride, 

Tar, 

coal, 

light 
oil, 

heavy 
oil, 

pounds. 

pounds. 

pounds. 

pounds. 

pounds. 

pounds. 

pounds. 

Birch  25  to  40  years  old 
Birch-bark,  first  extract 

46 
22 

5.2 
0.6 

3.9 

0.4 

8 
30 

23.5 
18.5 

1.2 
21.6 

4.5 
3.0 

"           second   " 

20 

0.7 

0.5 

20 

22 

12 

4.7 

Oak      

42 

6.0 

4.5 

8.8 

27.5(?) 

0.8 

3.3 

Fir 

42 

3.2 

2.4 

10.5 

22 

1.3 

5.7 

Pine     

44.5 

3.0 

2.3 

9.5 

22.6 

0.6 

3.5 

According  to  Rothe's  experience,  the  trunk-wood  of  birch 
from  60  to  80  years  old  and  grown  upon  a  high  dry  soil  with  a 
limestone  sub-soil  surpasses  the  best  red  beech  in  the  yield  of 
acetic  acid.  He  obtained  from  100  pounds  of  this  kind  of  wood 
dried  at  140°  to  158°  F.,  with  heating  for  48  hours,  at  a  final 
temperature  not  exceeding  750°  F.,  40  pounds  of  wood-vinegar 
of  25  per  cent,  acetic  anhydride,  further  2  or  3  per  cent,  of  tar, 
and  30  per  cent,  of  red  charcoal  suitable  for  the  manufacture  of 
powder. 

The  yield  of  salable,  though  not  entirely  pure  methyl  alcohol, 
is  J  Ib.  and  at  the  utmost  1J  Ibs.  from  110  Ibs.  of  wood  ;  accord- 
ing to  Vincent,  2  to  3  quarts  from  35.31  cubic  feet.  This  higher 
yield  is  said  to  be  obtained  by  moistening  the  wood  with  soda 
solution  and  drying.  In  case  this  statement  is  correct,  it  would 
be  advisable  to  saturate  saw-dust  with  soda  solution,  and  after 
drying  distill  in  Halliday's  apparatus.*  It  consists  of  a  hori- 
zontal, cast-iron  cylinder.  The  saw-dust,  spent  dye-wood,  etc. 
are  introduced  through  a  hopper  placed  above  the  front  end.  In 
the  cylinder  a  vertical  screw  or  worm  revolves  at  such  a  speed  as 
to  convey  the  material  in  the  proper  quantities  to  the  cylinder 
placed  in  a  horizontal  position  and  heated  by  means  of  a  furnace. 
Another  revolving  screw  or  worm  keeps  the  saw-dust,  etc.,  in- 
troduced in  the  retort  in  constant  motion  and  at  the  same  time 
moves  it  forward  to  the  opposite  end  of  the  retort.  During  their 


Muspratt's  Chemistry,  Vol.  I.  p.  23. 


PREPARATION   OF   PURE   CONCENTRATED   ACETIC   ACID.      253 

progress  through  the  retort  the  materials  are  completely  carbon- 
ized and  all  the  volatile  products  disengaged.  Two  pipes  branch 
off  from  the  extremity  of  the  retort,  one  of  which  passes  down- 
wards and  dips  into  an  air-tight  vessel  of  cast-iron  or  a  cistern  of 
water  into  which  the  carbonized  substance  falls ;  the  other  is  an 
ascending  pipe  and  carries  off'  the  volatile  products  of  the  distil- 
lation into  the  condenser,  which  consists  of  copper  or  iron  pipes 
immersed  in  or  surrounded  by  water. 

According  to  statements  by  Hargreaves  and  others,  saw-dust 
from  resinous  woods  gives  as  much  wood-vinegar  in  24  hours 
with  8  or  10  retorts  14  inches  in  diameter,  as  with  16  retorts  3 
feet  in  diameter. 

In  another  comparison  of  the  two  systems,  8  Halliday  retorts 
consuming  22  tons  of  saw-dust  weekly  produce  : — 

Wood-vinegar  of  specific  gravity  1.05            .         .     2494  gallons. 
Tar 240 

While  a  ton  of  oak  (2240  Ibs.)  carbonized  in  large  retorts 
gives : — 

Wood-vinegar  of  specific  gravity  1.03            .         .     1277  pounds. 
Charcoal 600        " 

To  make  the  comparison  more  satisfactory  it  would  have  been 
necessary  to  state  the  kind  of  gallon  employed  and  the  percentage 
of  real  acid  in  the  wood- vinegar,  since  hydrometers  and  specific 
gravities  give  indications  of  very  little  value  in  this  case. 


CHAPTER  XXII. 

PREPARATION   OF    PURE   CONCENTRATED   ACETIC   ACID. 

THE  strongest  vinegar  which  can  be  prepared  by  the  process 
of  fermentation  contains  somewhat  above  13  per  cent,  of  acetic 
acid,  and  it  is  difficult,  even  with  the  greatest  care,  to  continu- 
ously obtain  a  product  of  this  strength.  The  difficulties  encoun- 
tered are  due  to  the  fact  that  the  vinegar  ferment  is  incapable  of 
vigorous  vegetation  in  a  fluid  containing,  besides  10  per  cent,  of 


254  VINEGAR,    CIDER,    AND    FRUIT-WINES. 

acetic  acid,  a  sufficient  quantity  of  alcohol  for  the  further  forma- 
tion of  3  per  cent,  of  acetic  acid,  and  it  requires  the  greatest  vigi- 
lance and  utmost  care  as  regards  the  maintenance  of  the  correct 
temperature  and  ventilation  in  the  factory  to  convert,  under  these 
conditions,  alcohol  into  acetic  acid. 

It  has  frequently  been  asked  whether  it  is  advisable  to  increase 
the  content  of  acetic  acid  in  vinegar  prepared  from  alcohol,  which 
contains  only  7  or  8  per  cent.,  to  12  or  14  per  cent,  by  the  addi- 
tion of  concentrated  acetic  acid  obtained  from  wood.  This  ques- 
tion may  be  answered  in  the  affirmative,  provided  absolutely  pure 
acetic  acid,  free  from  all  empyreumatic  substances,  be  used,  and  it 
is  advisable  in  all  cases  to  test  the  acetic  acid  as  to  a  content  of 
these  substances  as  well  as  to  the  presence  of  sulphurous  acid  and 
of  metals  (copper,  tin,  etc.). 

To  establish  the  presence  of  empyreumatic  substances,  dilute 
the  concentrated  acetic  acid  with  twice  or  three  times  its  volume 
of  distilled  water,  and  add  a  few  drops  of  a  solution  of  potassium 
permanganate.  In  the  presence  of  empyreumatic  substances  or 
sulphurous  acid  the  red  coloration  of  the  fluid  disappears  at  once. 
The  manner  of  detecting  the  presence  of  sulphurous  acid  and  of 
copper  and  other  metals  has  already  been  given  on  p.  211. 

Acetic  acid  which  gives  negative  results  with  these  tests  may 
be  considered  as  chemically  pure,  and  can  without  hesitation  be 
used  for  increasing  the  strength  of  vinegar  prepared  from  alcohol ; 
in  fact,  the  employment  of  the  so-called  vinegar  essence  for  this 
purpose  is  constantly  increasing.  The  fluid  occurring  in  com- 
merce under  this  name  is  highly  concentrated  acetic  acid  with  a 
content  of  acid  varying  between  60  and  80  per  cent.  By  diluting 
this  fluid  with  water  so  that  its  content  of  acetic  acid  is  equal  to 
that  of  ordinary  table  vinegar,  a  product  is  obtained  which,  as  re- 
gards taste,  can  be  scarcely  distinguished  from  ordinary  vinegar 
prepared  from  alcohol.  Chemically  there  is  also  but  little  differ- 
ence, the  vinegar  prepared  from  alcohol  containing  a  small  quan- 
tity of  acetic  ether  and  of  extractive  substances  which  do  not 
occur  in  vinegar  essence  obtained  by  distillation. 

For  the  preservation  of  fruit,  cucumbers,  and  the  so-called 
mixed  pickles,  and,  in  fact,  for  all  purposes  where  only  a  fluid 
containing  acetic  acid  and  water  is  required,  acetic  acid  obtained 


PREPARATION   OF   PURE   CONCENTRATED   ACETIC   ACID.       255 

from  wood  can  be  advantageously  used.  For  seasoning  food, 
vinegar  prepared  from  malt,  beer,  or  wine  is,  however,  prefer- 
able, it  being  more 'agreeable  to  the  senses  of  taste  and  smell  on 
account  of  its  content  of  other  substances  besides  pure  dilute 
acetic  acid. 

From  strong  vinegar  acetic  acid  is  obtained  by  distillation,  the 
separation  from  the  non-volatile  substances  being  only  possible 
by  these  means.  If  the  acid  is  to  be  entirely  pure,  the  vinegar 
is  subjected  to  distillation  in  a  copper  still  with  a  head  and  worm 
of  silver  or  silver-plated,  though  this  costly  apparatus  is  now 
generally  replaced  by  a  head  and  worm  of  stone-ware.  If  abso- 
lute purity  is  not  required,  the  head  and  worm  may  be  of  copper, 
or  the  head  of  copper  and  the  worm  of  lead.  Tin  or  tinned 
copper  is  less  suitable,  since  a  trace  of  tin  which  may  be  dis- 
solved causes  opalescence  in  the  distilled  vinegar,  and,  besides, 
imparts  to  it  a  peculiar  disagreeable  odor.  By  using  pure  cop- 
per, distilling  quickly  and  without  interruption  and  cleaning  the 
apparatus  immediately  after  finishing  the  operation,  some  traces 
of  copper  will  only  be  found  in  the  first  portion  of  the  distillate. 
With  the  use  of  a  leaden  worm  a  content  of  lead  can  be  almost 
entirely  avoided  by  allowing  the  end  of  the  worm  to  dip  in  water 
or  vinegar,  or  by  inserting  in  the  end  of  the  worm  a  perforated 
cork  provided  with  a  U-shaped  tube,  the  latter  preventing  the 
access  of  air.  The  first  portion  of  the  distillate  only  contains 
lead ;  it  is  removed  and  can  be  used,  for  instance,  for  acetate  of 
lead.  The  distillate  is  from  time  to  time  tested  with  solution  of 
sulphuretted  hydrogen ;  the  distillate  is  free  from  lead  when  it 
no  longer  acquires  a  brown  coloration. 

The  distilled  acid  is,  however,  always  weaker  than  the  vinegar ; 
the  boiling  point  of  acetic  acid  being  higher  than  212°  F.,  an  acid 
rich  in  water  will  evidently  at  first  pass  over.  Distillation,  how- 
ever, cannot  be  carried  on  to  dryness,  as,  on  account  of  the  foreign 
substances  in  the  vinegar,  the  contents  of  the  still  would  inevitably 
burn  and  the  distillate  acquire  a  disagreeable  odor.  Hence  distil- 
lation must  cease  just  at  the  time  when  the  strongest  acid  would 
pass  over.  Stein  has,  therefore,  recommended  to  increase  the 
boiling  point  of  the  vinegar  by  the  addition  of  one-third  of  its 
weight  of  rock  salt.  Though  all  the  acetic  acid  is  not  obtained 


256  VINEGAR,    CIDER,    AND   FRUIT-WINES. 

by  these  means,  the  amount  is  considerably  larger  than  without 
such  an  addition.  The  rock  salt  remaining  unchanged,  the  resi- 
due can  be  repeatedly  used.  Comparatively  weak  acetic  acid 
can,  however,  only  be  obtained  by  this  method.  For  a  stronger 
product  it  is  necessary  to  use  an  acetate  and  decompose  it  by  a 
mineral  acid. 

The  cheapest  way  is  to  fix  the  acetic  acid  on  lime  and  to  distill 
the  calcium  acetate  with  crude  hydrochloric  acid.  After  neutra- 
lizing the  vinegar  with  milk  of  lime  and  bringing  the  solution  of 
the  acetate  to  dryness,  100  Ibs.  of  the  salt  are  dissolved  in  110  to 
120  Ibs.  of  crude  hydrochloric  acid  of  1.16  specific  gravity  and 
the  whole  is  subjected  to  distillation.  The  acetic  acid  obtained 
by  this  method  is  not  entirely  free  from  hydrochloric  acid,  but 
can  be  readily  purified  by  rectification  over  acetate  of  sodium  or 
of  calcium. 

Preparation  of  Acetic  Acid  from  Commercial  Acetates  and 
from  those  obtained  from  Wood-  Vinegar.  - 

The  most  highly  concentrated  acetic  acid,  known  as  glacial 
acetic  acid,  was  formerly  exclusively  obtained  by  the  dry  distilla- 
tion of  crystallized  verdigris  (normal  cupric  acetate).  By  drying 
this  salt  at  between  320°  and  356°  F.  and  heating,  a  mixture  of 
acetone  and  glacial  acetic  acid  is  obtained  which  only  requires 
rectification.  The  yield  of  acetic  acid  amounts  to  J  of  the  verdi- 
gris used  (see  Acetates).  This  process  has,  however,  been  almost 
entirely  abandoned,  cheaper  methods  having  been  introduced. 

The  principal  acetates  now  used  for  the  purpose  are  those  of 
lead,  barium,  calcium,  and  sodium ;  the  latter  two,  being  the 
cheapest,  are  exclusively  used  for  the  manufacture  on  a  large  scale, 
though  the  former  are  very  suitable  for  the  production  on  a  small 
scale. 

By  decomposing  normal  lead  acetate,  frequently  called  sugar  of 
lead,  with  one  equivalent  of  sulphuric  acid  (4.9  Ibs.  of  sulphuric 
acid  to  1 9  Ibs.  of  the  salt)  sulphate  of  lead  remains  in  the  retort 
while  acetic  acid  distills  over.  The  sulphate  of  lead  adheres, 
however,  very  tightly  to  the  retort,  and,  being  insoluble  in  water, 
it  can,  as  a  rule,  not  be  removed  without  injury  to  the  retort, 


PREPARATION   OF   PURE   CONCENTRATED   ACETIC   ACID.      257 

Hence  it  is  better  to  use  2  parts  of  sodium  bisulphate  and  1  part 
of  crystallized  lead  acetate,  a  mixture  of  lead  sulphate  and  neutral 
sodium  sulphate  then  remaining  in  the  retort,  which  can  be 
softened  with  water  and  readily  removed.  Instead  of  bisulphate 
any  desired  quantity  of  Glauber's  salt  may  be  added  to  the  lead 
acetate  and  the  whole  distilled  with  the  above-mentioned  quantity 
of  sulphuric  acid.  An  excess  of  the  latter  is  to  be  avoided,  the 
acetic  acid  being  decomposed  at  a  high  temperature  by  concen- 
trated sulphuric  acid.  Distillation  is  carried  on  in  a  sand-bath. 
For  very  concentrated  acetic  acid  lead  acetate  dephlegmated 
by  gentle  heating  is  used  instead  of  the  crystallized  acetate  and 
decomposed  with  one-third  of  its  weight  of  concentrated  sulphuric 
acid. 

The  acetic  acid  is,  however,  not  entirely  pure  in  either  case,  as  it 
contains  a  small  quantity  of  sulphurous  acid  formed  by  the  action 
of  the  sulphuric  acid  upon  the  acetic  acid.  This  impurity  can  be 
readily  removed  by  rectification  over  brown  lead  oxide  (Pbo2)  or 
finely  powdered  peroxide  of  manganese  (MnO2),  sulphate  of  lead 
remaining  in  the  retort  in  the  first  case,  and  in  the  latter  a  mix- 
ture of  manganous  sulphate  and  hyposulphate. 

Bucholz  gives  the  following  direction  which  saves  rectification, 
the  required  quantity  of  peroxide  of  manganese  being  at  once  added 
to  the  mixture  of  lead  acetate  and  sulphuric  acid  :  192  parts  of 
lead  acetate,  24  of  Glauber's  salt,  6  of  peroxide  of  manganese,  56 
of  sulphuric  acid,  and  72  of  water;  the  yield  is  178  parts  of 
entirely  pure  acetic  acid  of  1.045  specific  gravity. 

By  decomposing  solution  of  lead  acetate  or  of  barium  acetate 
with  sulphuric  acid,  pure  acetic  acid  which  has,  however,  but 
little  strength,  can  be  prepared  without  distillation,  as  it  is  only 
necessary  not  to  use  an  excess  of  the  salts  or  of  sulphuric  acid. 
Completely  anhydrous  barium  acetate  should  be  used,  the  crystal- 
lized product  being  less  suitable  for  the  purpose  as  it  readily  loses 
its  water  of  crystallization.  For  100  parts  of  barium  acetate, 
38.4  parts  of  concentrated  sulphuric  acid  are  required  and  for 
100  parts  of  normal  lead  acetate  25.9  parts  of  sulphuric  acid.  The 
solution  of  barium  acetate  should  not  be  too  concentrated,  as  other- 
wise the  barium  sulphate  does  not  appear  in  the  ordinary  form  of 
17 


258  VINEGAR,    CIDER,    AND    FRUIT-WINES. 

a  fine  dense  powder,  but  as  a  gelatinous  precipitate  which  settles 
with  difficulty  and  pertinaciously  retains  acetic  acid. 

Finally,  the  lead  acetate  can  also  be  decomposed  by  nitric  acid, 
this  method  having  the  advantage  of  yielding  a  valuable  by-pro- 
duct, lead  nitrate.  Christ!  obtained  from  100  parts  of  lead 
acetate  and  53  of  nitric  acid  of  1.38  specific  gravity,  65  parts  of 
acetic  acid  of  1.06  specific  gravity  and  80  parts  of  crystallized 
lead  nitrate.  A  weaker  acid,  for  instance  of  1.04  specific  gravity, 
can  be  obtained  by  dissolving  the  lead  acetate  in  hot  water,  adding 
the  above-mentioned  quantity  of  nitric  acid,  and  after  allowing  the 
greater  portion  of  the  lead  nitrate  to  crystallize  out,  distilling  the 
mother-lye.  To  see  whether  the  acid  thus  obtained  is  free  from 
nitric  acid,  compound  a  sample  with  a  drop  of  very  dilute  solu- 
tion of  indigo  and  boil  for  some  time :  discoloration  proves  the 
presence  of  nitric  acid. 

Calcium  acetate  and  sodium  acetate  form  the  basis  for  the 
preparation  of  acetic  acid  on  a  large  scale  ;  the  former,  if  the 
acid  is  to  be  used  for  ordinary  technical  purposes,  where  absolute 
purity  is  not  required,  as,  for  instance,  in  the  fabrication  of  lead 
acetate,  crystallized  verdigris,  aniline  (from  nitrobenzole  and 
metallic  iron),  etc.,  and  the  latter,  if  the  acid  is  to  be  free  from 
empyreumatic  odor  and  taste  and  suitable  for  use  in  the  fabrica- 
tion of  aniline  colors,  for  photographical,  pharmaceutical,  and 
household  purposes,  etc. 

According  to  VolckePs  method,  for  100  pounds  of  dry  yel- 
lowish gray  calcium  .acetate  90  to  95  pounds  of  crude  hydrochlo- 
ric acid  of  1.16  specific  gravity  are  used,  the  acid  obtained  show- 
ing a  specific  gravity  of  1.058  to  1.061.  By  adding  to  the  above 
mixture  25  pounds  of  water  distillation  proceeds  with  greater 
ease.  95  to  100  pounds  of  acid  of  1.050  specific  gravity  being  ob- 
tained. In  order  to  ascertain  the  required  quantity  of  hydrochlo- 
ric acid  more  accurately  than  is  possible  from  the  above-men- 
tioned approximate  statements,  it  is  necessary  to  distill  two  small 
samples  of  the  thoroughly  mixed  acetate,  for  instance,  100 
grammes,  with  95  or  90  grammes  of  hydrochloric  acid,  and*  to 
test  the  distillate  for  hydrochloric  acid.  This  is  readily  effected 
by  adding  a  few  drops  of  dilute  solution  of  nitrate  of  silver,  a 
white  precipitate  or  white  turbidity  indicating  hydrochloric  acid. 


PREPARATION    OF   PURE   CONCENTRATED    ACETIC   ACID.      259 

The  mixture  of  acetate  and  hydrochloric  acid  is  not  distilled  at 
once,  but  allowed  to  stand  12  hours  for  the  substances  to  act  upon 
each  other,  and  for  the  removal  of  the  tarry  bodies  which  sepa- 
rate on  the  surface.  It  is  then  brought  into  a  copper  still  and  heated 
over  an  open  fire.  ,  At  first  weak,  and  later  on,  stronger  acid 
passes  over.  What  remains  is  calcium  chloride  contaminated  by 
tarry  substances  which  have,  however,  become  almost  entirely 
insoluble.  The  thin  pasty  mixture  is  drawn  off  through  a  pipe 
on  the  bottom  of  the  still,  and,  as  a  rule,  thrown  away.  By  evap- 
orating it,  however,  to  dryness  and  roasting  it  for  some  time  with 
access  of  air,  or  dissolving  it  in  water,  filtering  and  evaporating- 
to  dryness  in  an  iron  boiler,  it  may  serve  for  the  preparation  of 
glacial  acetic  acid  (see  below). 

Cast-iron  stills  can  also  be  used  and  are  quite  durable  as  far  as 
moistened  by  the  acid  mixture.  The  places  exposed  to  the  vapors 
of  acetic  acid  are,  however,  quickly  attacked,  and  it  is,  therefore, 
recommended  to  provide  the  upper  portion  of  the  still  with  a 
lining  of  sheet-copper. 

The  acid  thus  obtained  has  a  strong  empyreumatic  odor,  is  not 
entirely  colorless,  and  sometimes  contains  traces  of  hydrochloric 
acid.  By  rectifying  it  over  1  to.  1 J  per  cent,  of  potassium  bi- 
chromate the  odor,  coloration,  and  content  of  hydrochloric  acid 
disappear,  but  a  slight  empyreumatic  taste  remains. 

When,  however,  the  empyreumatic  odor  is  not  objectionable 
and  only  the  hydrochloric  acid  is  to  be  removed,  the  latter  object 
can  be  attained  at  less  cost  by  rectification  over  some  calcium 
acetate  or  over  burnt  lime.  A  test  on  a  small  scale  is  also  made 
in  this  case  to  ascertain  the  required  quantity  of  salt  or  lime. 
Or  the  acid  is  titrated  with  solution  of  nitrate  of  silver  and  the 
quantity  of  lime  or  calcium  acetate  found  by  calculation  added. 
The  process  with  the  use  of  decinormal  solution  of  nitrate  of 
silver,  i.  e.,  such  as  contains  in  1  liter  17  grammes  of  crystallized 
nitrate  of  silver,  is  as  follows :  Mix  100  cubic  centimetres  of  the 
acetic  acid  in  a  beaker  or  porcelain  dish  with  a  drop  of  saturated 
solution  of  bichromate,  and  add  from  a  burette,  with  constant 
stirring  with  a  glass  rod,  drop  by  drop  of  the  decinormal  solution 
of  nitrate  of  silver  until  the  white  precipitate  just  commences  to 
acquire  a  red  coloration.  Now  read  off  and  multiply  the  nura- 


260 


VINEGAR,   CIDER,    AND    FRUIT- WINES. 


her  of  cubic  centimetres  of  nitrate  of  silver  solution  consumed 
by  0.028,  or,  still  better,  as  the  lime  is  seldom  pure,  by  0.03. 
The  product  gives  the  quantity  of  lime  in  grammes  required  for 
1  liter  of  acetic  acid.  If  calcium  aetate  is  to  be  used,  multiply 
by  0.079,  or  by  0.08  if  the  calcium  acetate  is  not  absolutely  pure. 
'  Rectification  is  executed  with  steam.  In  Fig.  61  the  steam 
enters  through  the  vertical  pipe  near  the  bottom  of  the  still  and 

Fig.  61. 


circulates  in  a  coil ;  the  condensed  water  can  be  discharged  through 
a  pipe  near  the  influx  aperture. 

The  first  and  last  portions  are  not  entirely  clear  ;  they  are  col- 
lected by  themselves,  and,  after  mixing,  allowed  to  clear  by  stand- 
ing, when  the  greater  portion  can  be  siphoned  off.  The  turbid 
residue  is  added  to  a  fresh  mixture  of  acetate  and  hydrochloric 
acid  to  be  subjected  to  distillation. 

Volckel  has  further  found  that  it  is  not  necessary  to  use  the 
roasted  gray  calcium  acetate,  but  that,  with  a  slight  modification 
of  the  process,  the  acetate  prepared  from  crude  wood-vinegar 
answers  nearly  as  well.  The  crude  wood-vinegar  is  filtered 
through  charcoal  and  being  freed  from  wood-spirit  and  acetone 
by  distillation,  is  saturated  or  even  slightly  supersaturated  in  an 
iron  boiler  with  slaked  lime  (litmus  paper  should  be  colored 
slightly  blue).  The  solution  is  boiled  for  some  time,  and,  after 
clarifying,  is  evaporated  in  an  iron  pan  to  about  one-half  its  vol- 
ume, the  resinous  and  sooty  impurities  appearing  upon  the  surface 
being  constantly  removed. 


PREPARATION    OF    PURE   CONCENTRATED    ACETIC   ACID.      261 

The  purpose  of  the  excess  of  lime  is  to  expel  the  volatile  basic 
bodies,  ammonia  and  methylamine,  and  to  decompose  the  volatile 
oils.  The  non-volatile  bodies  dissolved  in  the  crude  wood-vine- 
gar separate  partially  in  saturating  with  lime  and  partially  in 
boiling  and  evaporating.  A  portion  of  these  foreign  substances 
remains,  however,  in  solution,  combined  with  the  lime  so  that  the 
clear  fluid  obtained  by  decantation  or  filtration  has  a  brown  red 
color. 

It  is  now  slightly  acidulated  with  crude  hydrochloric  acid,  4 
pounds  of  the  latter  being  at  the  utmost  required  for  22  impe- 
rial gallons  of  wood-vinegir.  A  considerable  quantity  of  tarry 
substances  is  separated  and  after  their  removal  the  solution  ap- 
pears less  highly  colored.  By  now  evaporating  to  dryness  and 
roasting  in  the  previously  described  manner,  or  sharply  drying 
upon  heated  iron  plates,  the  salt  is  obtained  as  a  dirty  gray- 
brown  mass.  The  acetic  acid  separated  from  it  is,  however, 
scarcely  more  impure  than  that  obtained  from  gray  salt,  and  by 
using  somewhat  more  potassium  bichromate,  about  2  or  3  per 
cent.,  in  the  rectification,  there  is  no  difference  in  the  quality  of 
the  acid. 

Reichenbach  destroys  the  empyreumatic  bodies  in  crude  cal- 
cium acetate  by  distilling  with  an  excess  of  concentrated  sulphuric 
acid.  According  to  his  statements,  a  clear  colorless  acetic  acid  of 
great  strength  and  showing  no  empyreumatic  odor  is  obtained. 
The  crude  distillate,  however,  contains  sulphurous  acid,  so  that 
it  has  to  be  rectified  over  pyrolusite  and  sulphuric  acid  or  over 
minium  or  potassium  bichromate. 

According  to  Schnedermann,  the  wood-vinegar  freed  from 
wood-spirit  is  exposed  with  an  excess  of  quicklime  to  the  air  for 
24  hours,  whereby  the  separation  of  the  tarry  substances  is  claimed 
to  be  promoted.  The  clear  dark-brown  solution  of  the  calcium 
salt  is  drawn  off  and  after  heating  to  boiling  mixed  with  calcium 
chloride  solution  as  long  as  the  latter  produces  a  discoloring  effect. 
The  now  yellowish  brown  solution  is  evaporated  and  finally 
decomposed  with  sulphuric  acid  (or  hydrochloric  acid).  The 
acetic  acid  obtained  by  distillation  is  claimed  to  possess  only  a 
slightly  yellow  color  and  to  be  suitable  for  many  technical  pur- 


262  VINEGAR,    CIDEK,    AND   FRUIT-WINES. 

poses.  The  acid  thus  obtained,  however,  undoubtedly  contains 
hydrochloric  acid  and  has  to  be  rectified  over  sodium  acetate. 

Acetic  acid  of  a  pure  taste  suitable  for  household  use  as  well  as 
for  technical  purposes  is,  as  previously  mentioned,  exclusively 
obtained  from  sodium  acetate  either  by  distillation  or  without  it. 

Sodium  acetate  is,  to  be  sure,  completely  decomposed  by  1 
equivalent  of  sulphuric  acid  (36  Ibs.  of  acid  to  100  Ibs.  of  crys- 
tallized salt)  and,  on  a  small  scale  in  glass  retorts,  it  is  effected 
without  difficulty,  because  a  strong  heat  can  finally  be  applied 
without  injury.  On  a  large  scale,  however,  where  the  distillation 
is  executed  by  means  of  steam*  of  two  atmospheres,  1  equivalent 
of  sulphuric  acid  is  not  advantageous,  because  the  remaining  solid 
neutral  sodium  sulphate  retains  much  strong  acetic  acid.  It  is, 
therefore,  recommended  to  gradually  pour  2  equivalents  of  sul- 
phuric acid  (72  Ibs.  of  acid  to  100  Ibs.  of  the  salt)  upon  the 
crystallized  salt  in  a  copper  still  and  introduce  steam  after  allow- 
ing the  whole  to  rest  several  hours.  The  residue  remaining  in 
this  process  is  sodium  bisulphate,  which  remains  entirely  fluid  at 
the  distilling  temperature  and  from  which  all  the  acetic  acid  can 
be  expelled.  A  further  advantage  of  this  method  is  that  at  first 
very  strong  acetic  acid  passes  over,  which  can  be  collected  by 
itself  and  worked  into  glacial  acetic  acid  (see  below).  Later  on 
comes  more  dilute  acid,  because  the  water  of  crystallization  of  the 
acetate,  which  was  at  first  retained  by  the  bisulphate,  also  passes 
over. 

The  bisulphate  while  still  hot  is  poured  into  slightly  conical 
shallow  copper  pans  in  which  it  congeals  on  cooling.  It  might 
thus  be  brought  into  commerce,  but  as  the  manufacturer  would 
have  to  compete  with  large  chemical  works  producing  mineral 
acids,  it  is  more  advantageous  to  utilize  it  by  distilling  it  with 
crude  sodium  acetate  in  the  proportion  of  3  :  2,  whereby  2.5  parts 
of  neutral  anhydrous  sodium  sulphate  remain  behind,  which,  as 
previously  mentioned,  can  be  again  used  for  the  preparation  of 
sodium  acetate,  while  2  parts  of  acetic  acid  with  about  40  per 
cent,  of  acetic  anhydride,  which  is  pure  enough  for  many  pur- 
poses, pass  over. 

*  With  the  use  of  a  free  fire,  the  stills  suffer  very  much. 


PREPARATION    OF   PURJE    CONCENTRATED   ACETIC   ACID.       263 

From  100  Ibs.  of  crystallized  sodium  acetate  80  Ibs.  of  acetic 
acid  with  55  per  cent,  of  acetic  anhydride  (1.065  specific  gravity) 
are  obtained,  or  100  Ibs.  of  acid  with  44  per  cent,  of  acetic 
anhydride.  Asa  rule,  the  acid  is,  however,  not  entirely  pure ; 
it  generally  contains  traces  of  hydrochloric  acid,  of  sulphurous 
acid  and  of  copper.  It  is,  therefore,  again  distilled  in  the  same 
apparatus,  now  provided,  however,  with  a  neck  and  worm  of  silver 
or  of  stoneware,  some  sodium  acetate,  or,  still  better,  minium  or 
potassium  bichromate  being  added.  In  each  case  the  hydrochloric 
acid  remains  behind  as  metallic  chloride  (chloride  of  sodium, 
lead,  potassium  and  chromium).  In  the  first  case  the  first  por- 
tions passing  over  contain  some  sulphurous  acid  and  may  have  a 
slightly  empyreumatic  odor ;  but  the  acid  passing  over  later  on  is 
pure.  In  the  second  and  third  case  the  sulphurous  acid  is  con- 
verted into  sulphuric  acid  by  the  disposable  oxygen  of  the 
minium  of  the  bichromate  and  retained  as  sulphate,  the  empy- 
reumatic substances  being  also  destroyed. 

The  portion  of  acid  of  a  pure  taste,  which  passes  over  first  in 
rectifying,  being  weakest,  is  used  for  household  purposes  ;  later  on 
comes  a  stronger  acid  up  to  10°  B.  =  1.075  specific  gravity. 

Although  in  thoroughly  rectified  acid  no  impurity  can  be 
established  by  the  most  sensitive  reagent,  for  instance,  potassium 
permanganate,  its  taste  is  not  as  pure  as  that  of  acid  prepared  with- 
out distillation.  This  imperfection  can,  however,  be  concealed  by 
the  addition  of  a  small  quantity  of  acetic  ether  or  of  alcohol 
(about  1  quart  to  22  imp.  gallons),  which  is  converted  into  acetic 
ether. 

Mollerat's  method  renders,  however,  even  this  resort  unneces- 
sary. According  to  it,  pure  sodium  acetate  obtained  in  small 
crystals  by  disturbing  crystallization  is  decomposed  with  1  equiv- 
alent of  concentrated  sulphuric  acid  (65  Ibs.  of  acid  to  100  Ibs. 
of  salt)  in  a  large  vat  provided  with  a  false  bottom.  The  sub- 
stances being  thoroughly  mixed  by  means  of  a  stirring  apparatus, 
Fig.  62,  the  mixture  is  allowed  to  stand  till  the  next  day.  De- 
composition is  completely  effected  in  this  time  at  an  ordinary 
temperature,  the  acetic  acid  being  liberated  and  the  greater  portion 
of  the  neutral  sodium  sulphate,  which  dissolves  but  little  in  the 
acid,  crystallized  out.  To  prevent  the  perforations  of  the  false 


264  VINEGAR,    CIDER,    AND    FRUIT-WINES. 

bottom  from  being  obstructed  by  the  sulphate  crystallizing  out, 
sufficient  pure  acetic  acid  is  previously  poured  into  the  vat  to 
cover  the  perforated  bottom.  By  opening  the  stop-cock  the 
acetic  acid  runs  off,  which,  however,  contains  a  small  quantity  of 

Fig.  62. 


sodium  sulphate  in  solution.  The  remaining  sulphate  is  washed 
with  water,  and,  after  mixing  the  latter  with  the  acid,  the  mixture 
is  brought  into  stoneware-pots  which  are  placed  in  cold  water  for 
about  8  days,  whereby  the  greater  portion  of  the  sodium  sulphate 
is  crystallized  out.  The  very  small  quantity  remaining  imparts, 
however,  a  laxative  quality  to  the  salt,  and  hence  must  be  con- 
verted into  a  salt  which  does  not  possess  this  medicinal  property. 
This  is  effected  by  mixing  the  acid  siphoned  off  in  a  vat  with 
pure  calcium  acetate,  the  required  quantity  of  which  has  to  be 
determined  by  a  test  on  a  small  scale.  The  gypsum  formed 
gradually  settles  to  the  bottom,  while  a  corresponding  quantity 
of  newly-formed  sodium  acetate  remains  dissolved  in  the  acid, 
which  is,  however,  not  injurious. 

The  process  may  also  be  executed  by  bringing  100  pounds  of 
the  salt  in  very  small  crystals  or  finely  pulverized  into  a  stone- 
ware vessel,  and  adding  at  one  time  35  or  at  the  utmost  35.5 
pounds  of  concentrated  sulphuric  acid  in  such  a  manner  that  it 
lies  on  the  bottom  of  the  vessel  below  the  salt.  Mixing  is  then 
gradually  effected  so  as  to  avoid  heating  as  much  as  possible. 


PREPARATION   OF   PURE   CONCENTRATED   ACETIC   ACID.      265 

Decomposition  is  complete  in  a  few  hours  and  the  sodium  sul- 
phate crystallized  out  on  the  bottom,  the  supernatant  acetic  acid 
being  partially  in  a  fluid  and  partially  in  a  crystallized  state. 
The  acid  is  then  siphoned  off  and  pure  calcium  acetate  added  as 
above.  The  sodium  sulphate  is  then  regained  and  can  be  again 
used  in  the  fabrication. 

The  acid  thus  obtained  need  only  be  reduced  to  the  strength 
desired  by  the  consumer  by  diluting  with  water. 

Glacial  Acetie  Acid. 

Glacial  acetic  acid  can  be  prepared  by  distilling  12  pounds  ot 
pure  anhydrous  sodium  acetate  with  11  pounds  of  concentrated 
sulphuric  acid.  The  last  portion,  which  is  frequently  somewhat 
empyreumatic,  is  collected  by  itself  and  the  portion  first  passed 
over  rectified  over  sulphuric  acid  and  pyrolusite  to  remove  traces 
of  sulphurous  acid. 

A  better  method  published  by  Melsens  is  based  upon  the  prop- 
erty of  neutral  calcium  acetate  to  absorb  1  equivalent  of  hydrated 
acetic  acid  and  to  form  a  solid  acid  salt  which  decomposes  only, 
at  392°  F.,  into  hydrated  acetic  acid,  which  passes  over,  and  into 
neutral  acetate  which  remains  behind.  Hence,  by  decomposing 
sodium  acetate  with  2  equivalents  of  sulphuric  acid  and  collecting 
the  strong  acid  first  passing  over  as  long  as  it  shows  from  10°  to 
8°  B.,  it  is  only  necessary  to  pour  it  into  a  copper  still  upon 
fused  potassium  acetate  coarsely  powdered  after  cooling,  and  after 
standing  for  several  hours  to  distill  over  a  free  fire,  the  still 
being  provided  with  a  silver  neck  and  a  worm  of  the  same 
material.  When  the  temperature  exceeds  248°  F.  all  the  weaker 
acid  has  passed  over  and  the  receiver  is  changed.  At  392°  F. 
glacial  acetic  acid  passes  over  which  is  again  rectified  over  fused 
potassium  acetate  and  then  exposed  to  a  low  temperature  to 
freeze. 

Glacial  acetic  acid  can  also  be  prepared  in  the  same  manner 
from  acetic  acid  of  1.061  specific  gravity  obtained  by  VolckePs 
method  or  by  distilling  it  over  anhydrous  calcium  chloride  and 
cooling  the  distillate,  whereby  one  portion  crystallizes.  The  por- 
tion which  remains  liquid  is  poured  off  and  again  distilled  over 


266  VINEGAR,    CIDER,    AND    FRUIT-WINES. 

calcium  chloride.  The  glacial  acetic  acid  thus  obtained  contains 
considerable  hydrochloric  acid,  but  can  be  readily  freed  from  this 
impurity  by  distilling  over  anhydrous  sodium  acetate,  or,  still 
better,  over  anhydrous  potassium  acetate.  As  by  this  method 
calcium  chloride  is  obtained  as  a  by-product  (see  p.  259),  and 
can  be  freed  from  all  organic  substances  by  glowing  with  the  ac- 
cess of  air,  the  preparation  of  glacial  acetic  acid  in  this  manner  is 
just  as  readily  executed  as,  though  it  has  no  advantage  over, 
Melsen's  process. 

Perfectly  pure  hydrated  acetic  acid  dissolves  oil  of  lemon  in 
every  proportion,  but  if  one  drop  of  water  be  added  a  portion  of 
the  oil  immediately  separates.  This  behavior  may  be  utilized  for 
ascertaining  at  what  moment  the  strongest  acid  is  to  be  collected 
at  the  last  rectification.  The  pure  but  weaker  acid  obtained  in 
the  fabrication  is  used  in  the  preparation  of  pure  acetates. 

Below  59.9°  F.  glacial  acetic  acid  forms  large,  colorless,  trans- 
parent crystals,  which  above  that  temperature  fuse  to  a  thin  color- 
less liquid,  of  exceedingly  pungent  and  well-known  odor;  it 
raises  blisters  on  the  skin.  It  is  miscible  in  all  proportions  with 
water,  alcohol,  and  ether,  and  dissolves  camphor  and  several 
resins.  In  a  liquid  state  glacial  acetic  acid  has  a  density  of  1.063 
and  boils  at  248°  F. ;  its  vapor  is  inflammable. 


CHAPTER  XXIII. 

ACETATES    AXD   THEIR    MANUFACTURE. 

A  CONSIDERABLE  quantity  of  the  vinegar  obtained  from  alcohol 
and  wood  (as  well  as  the  acetic  acid  prepared  from  it)  is  worked 
into  acetates,  there  being,  for  instance,  factories  which  use  their 
entire  product  in  the  fabrication  of  lead  acetate  or  sugar  of  lead. 
Only  the  more  important  technical  acetates  (combinations  of 
acetic  acid  with  metallic  oxides,  or,  according  to  the  view  of 
modern  chemists,  acetic  acid  in  which  1  molecule  of  hydrogen  is 
replaced  by  a  metal)  will  here  be  described. 

Acetic  acid  is  a  monobasic  acid,  i.  c.,  it  contains  1  atom  of 


ACETATES   AND   THEIR   MANUFACTURE.  267 

hydrogen  which  can  be  replaced  by  a  metal :  C2H4O2  =  C2H3O21H. 
If  this  hydrogen  is  replaced  by  a  univalent  metal  (for  instance,  K 
or  Xa),  a  salt  of  the  formula  C2H3O2Xa  or  C2H3NaO2  is  formed. 
If,  however,  2  atoms  of  hydrogen  in  2  molecules  of  acetic  acid 
be  replaced  by  a  bivalent  metal,  (C2H.sO2)2Ba,  etc.,  is  formed,  and 
finally  with  a  trivalent  metal,  (Al)  (C2H3O2)3A1. 

Most  of  the  acetates  are  readily  soluble  in  water;  the  acetates 
of  molybdenum  are  insoluble ;  and  those  of  argentic  monoxide 
and  of  mercurous  oxide  dissolve  with  great  difficulty. 

The  preparation  of  the  acetates  is  effected  partially  by  dis- 
solving the  oxides  or  carbonates  in  acetic  acid,  which  must,  how- 
ever, not  be  too  concentrated  for  the  barium  and  calcium  salts, 
and  partially  by  double  decomposition,  generally  by  means  of 
the  lead  salt  and  a  sulphate  of  another  metal. 

The  acetates  of  potassium,  sodium,  and  ammonium  show  a 
slightly  alkaline  reaction  and  the  readily  soluble  basic  lead  ace- 
tates .a  strong  alkaline  one ;  the  remaining  lead  acetates  react  neu- 
tral or  slightly  acid. 

The  acetates  of  the  fixed  alkalies  and  alkaline  earths,  submit- 
ted to  dry  distillation,  yield  water  and  acetone,  while  the  oxide, 
and  sometimes  the  reduced  metal,  remain  in  the  distilling  appa- 
ratus. The  solutions  of  alkaline  acetates  become  mouldy  after  a 
time. 

The  acetic  acid  may  be  set  free  from  its  combinations  by  sul- 
phuric acid,  and  is  easily  recognized  by  its  characteristic  odor ; 
its  salts,  in  common  with  those  of  organic  acids,  become  black  by 
the  action  of  heat. 

Potassium  neutral  acetate,  KC2H3O2. — Acetic  acid  is  present 
in  the  sap  of  many  plants,  and  is  generally  combined  with  po- 
tassium, forming  neutral  potassium  acetate.  When  wood  is  cal- 
cined the  potassium  acetate  is  decomposed,  the  acetic  acid  being 
replaced  by  carbonic  acid.  It  is  by  this  interchange  that  the 
carbonate  of  potassium  found  in  wood  ashes  is  formed. 

It  is  prepared  by  dissolving  pure  carbonate  of  potassium  in  a 
slight  excess  of  acetic  acid,  evaporating  and  fusing.  The  excess 
of  acid  is  necessary  to  replace  that  which  is  lost  during  evapora- 
tion ;  without  it  the  salt  turns  yellow  or  brown. 

Another  method  of  obtaining  it  is  by  decomposing  normal 


268  VINEGAR,    CIDER,    AND    FRUIT- WINES. 

acetate  of  lead  (sugar  of  lead)  with  pure  carbonate  or  sulphate 
of  potassium.  To  detect  the  presence  of  lead  it  should  be 
tested  with  sulphuretted  hydrogen,  which  in  the  presence  of 
this  metal  produces  a  slightly  brown  precipitate.  To  obtain  a 
pure  product  the  decanted  liquid  is  treated  with  sulphuretted 
hydrogen,  and,  after  separating  from  the  precipitate  and  adding 
a  small  quantity  of  acetic  acid,  is  evaporated  in  a  stone-ware 
vessel. 

Potassium  acetate  is  readily  soluble  in  water  and  ordinary 
alcohol ;  it  is  quite  soluble  in  absolute  alcohol,  but  insoluble  in 
ether.  It  is  a  very  deliquescent  salt  and  difficult  to  crystallize. 
The  entirely  pure  salt  in  dilute  aqueous  solution  should  not  give 
precipitates  with  potassium  or  with  sulphuretted  hydrogen,  nor 
with  barium  chloride  or  nitrate  of  silver. 

At  an  ordinary  temperature  100  parts  of  water  dissolve  230 
parts  of  the  salt ;  a  saturated  solution,  which  boils  at  336.2°  F., 
contains  for  100  parts  of  water  800  of  the  salt.  From  the  alco- 
holic solution  of  the  salt  potassium  carbonate  is  thrown  down  by 
a  stream  of  carbon  dioxide. 

Potassium  acetate  melts  without  decomposition  at  482°  F.  to 
an  oily  liquid,  and  on  cooling  forms  a  crystalline,  foliated  mass ; 
at  a  red  heat  it  is  decomposed  into  acetone,  hydrocarbons,  empy- 
reumatic  products,  and  a  residue  of  carbon  and  potassium  car- 
bonate. 

By  the  decomposition  of  acetate  of  potassium  by  electrolysis 
Kolbe  first  obtained  free  methyl. 

Potassium  acetate,  when  treated  with  potassium  hydrate  in  ex- 
cess, becomes  converted  into  carbonate  of  potassium  and  marsh 
gas.  When  heated  with  arsenious  acid,  cacodyl  (Cadet's  fuming 
liquid)  is  produced.  This  reaction  is  so  decided,  and  the  allia- 
ceous odor  evolved  so  strongly  marked,  that  it  forms  one  of  the 
best  tests  for  small  quantities  of  acetic  acid. 

Potassium  acetate  is  an  important  medicine;  it  is  employed 
as  a  diuretic;  it  is  also  recommended  for  the  preservation  of 
microscopic  objects,  .and  it  is  occasionally  used  for  the  prepara- 
tion of  pear  ether  (amyl  acetate). 

Potassium  acid  acetate  or  potassium  diacetate,  KC2H3O2C2H4O2, 
is  formed  by  evaporating  a  solution  of  the  neutral  salt  in  excess 


ACETATES   AXD   THEIR   MANUFACTURE.  269 

of  acetic  acid ;  it  crystallizes  by  slow  evaporation  in  long,  flat- 
tened prisms.  It  is  very  deliquescent  and  decomposes  at  392°  F., 
giving  off  crystallizable  acetic  acid. 

Sodium  acetate,  NaC2H.,O2. — The  manner  of  preparing  this  salt 
in  the  fabrication  of  wood-vinegar  has  already  been  described.  It- 
can  be  obtained  in  a  manner  similar  to  that  of  the  potassium  salt 
by  dissolving  carbonate  of  soda  in  acetic  acid,  evaporating  the  solu- 
tion, and  setting  the  liquor  aside  to  crystallize.  The  crystals  form 
large,  colorless,  oblique  rhombic  prisms.  Their  composition  is 
NaC2H3O2  +  3H2O  ;  they  are  soluble  in  3  parts  of  cold,  in  a  less 
quantity  of  boiling  water,  and  in  5  of  alcohol. 

The  taste  of  sodium  acetate  is  cooling  and  saline.  When  ex- 
posed to  dry  air  it  loses  its  three  equivalents  of  water,  but  regains 
them  in  a  moist  atmosphere.  After  being  melted  it  is  deliques- 
cent and  takes  up  7  equivalents  of  water ;  it  then  becomes  a  liquid, 
supersaturated  solution  which  crystallizes,  with  evolution  of  heat, 
immediately  after  a  fragment  of  dry  or  crystallized  sodium  ace- 
tate is  thrown  into  it. 

Sodium  acetate  is  used  for  the  preparation  of  acetic  acid,  acetic 
ether,  and  in  medicine.  Sacc  recommends  it  for  the  preservation 
of  animal  and  vegetable  substances.  His  method  consists  in  the 
use  of  powdered  acetate  of  sodium  instead  of  common  salt.  To 
keep  meat  fresh  it  is  placed  in  a  barrel  with  layers  of  acetate  of 
sodium  interposed  between  the  layers  of  meat  in  the  proportion 
of  one-fourth  of  the  weight  of  the  meat.  In  summer  the  action 
of  the  salt  is  immediate ;  in  winter  it  is  necessary  to  place  the 
barrel  in  a  heated  room.  As  the  salt  abstracts  the  water  from 
the  meat,  the  barrel  is  turned  about.  The  operation  is  complete 
in  about  48  hours,  and  the  meat  may  then  be  packed  with  its 
pickle  or  it  may  be  dried  in  the  air.  If  the  barrels  are  not  full, 
they  may  be  filled  up  with  a  fresh  pickle  made  by  dissolving  1 
part  of  sodium  acetate  in  3  of  water.  When  the  pickle  is  drawn 
off  from  the  meat  half  the  salt  is  deposited  in  crystals  and  may 
be  again  used. 

Meat  which  has  been  thus  treated  is  prepared  for  cooking  by 
steeping  for  at  least  12  and  not  more  than  24  hours,  according 
to  the  size  of  the  piece,  in  tepid  water,  to  which  a  small  quantity 
of  sal  ammoniac  has  previously  been  added.  This  salt  decom- 


"270  VINEGAR,   CIDER,    AND   FRUIT- WINES. 

poses  the  acetate  of  sodium  which  remains  in  the  meat,  forming- 
sodium  chloride  or  common  salt,  and  ammonium  acetate.  The 
meat  swells  and  resumes  the  color  and  reactions  of  fresh  meat. 
Animals,  particularly  fish  and  poultry,  may  be  preserved  entire 
for  market  purposes  in  a  pickle  of  sodium  acetate,  the  only  pre- 
caution necessary  being  the  removal  of  the  intestines.  Under 
the  influence  of  the  pickle  the  meat  loses  about  one-fourth  of  its 
weight  and  another  quarter  disappears  when  it  is  dried.  The 
process  is  also  said  to  be  very  well  adapted  to  the  preservation 
of  vegetables.  These  generally  lose  thereby  five-sixths  of  their 
weight.  When  needed  for  use,  it  is  only  necessary  to  soak  them 
for  twelve  hours  in  water  and  then  cook  them  as  if  entirely  fresh. 

A  mixture  of  dephlegmated  sodium  acetate  with  saltpetre  ex- 
plodes with  great  violence  on  heating.  According  to  Violette,  a 
mixture  of  saltpetre  75  parts,  sulphur  12.5,  and  sodium  acetate 
25,  acts  more  vigorously  than  gunpowder  and  can  be  granulated. 

Ammonium  acetate,  neutral  acetate  of  ammonia,  XH,,C,HoO  . — 

*/  4/       *        o       2 

This  substance  is  obtained  by  neutralizing  acetic  acid  with  carbo- 
nate of  ammonia,  or,  better,  by  saturating  glacial  acetic  acid  with 
dry  ammonia  gas.  It  is  very  difficult  to  obtain  in  the  crystalline 
form  on  account  of  its  aqueous  solution  giving  off  ammonia  when 
evaporated,  thus  becoming  converted  into  the  acid  salt.  When 
subjected  to  dry  distillation  ammonia  gas  escapes  first ;  above  320° 
F.  there  is  formed,  besides  water,  chiefly  acetamide  (C2H51STO),  a 
white  crystalline  body  which  is  also  formed,  besides  alcohol,  on 
heating  acetic  ether  with  liquid  ammonia  in  a  closed  vessel  to 
about  266°  F. 

In  medicine  ammonium  acetate  has  long  been  used  as  a 
diaphoretic. 

Calcium  acetate  Ca(C2H3O2)2  is  prepared  from  burnt  lime  or 
calcium  carbonate  (marble,  chalk)  and  dilute  acetic  acid.  The 
preparation  of  the  crude  calcium  acetate  (brown  salt)  has  been 
previously  described  under  wood-vinegar.  To  obtain  the  pure 
salt  crystallized,  add  to  a  concentrated  aqueous  solution  several 
.times  its  volume  of  ordinary  alcohol ;  the  salt  deposits  in  the 
course  of  24  hours. 

The  crystals  of  the  pure  salt  form  white  acicular  prisms  which 
effloresce  in  the  air  and  are  soluble  in  water  and  in  alcohol ;  they 


ACETATES   AND   THEIR   MANUFACTURE.  271 

have  a  bitter,  salty  taste.  They  are  decomposed  by  heat  into 
acetone  and  calcium  carbonate.  A  mixture  of  this  salt  and  of 
potassium  oxalate  gives,  on  heating,  propylene  (C3H6),  while  a 
mixture  of  carbonates  remains  behind.  By  the  dry  distillation 
of  equal  equivalents  of  acetate  and  benzoate  of  calcium  aceto- 
phenone  (C8H8O)  is  obtained,  which  by  treatment  with  nitric  acid 
is  converted  into  nitro-acephotenone  (C8H7NO3).  By  heating  the 
latter  with  zinc-dust  and  soda-lime,  Emmerling  and  Engler  claim 
to  have  obtained  artificial  indigo-blue.  But  the  quantity  of  the 
latter  thus  obtained  is  always  very  small,  and  it  appears  to  be 
very  difficult  to  ascertain  the  precise  condition  under  which  the 
transformation  takes  place. 

With  calcium  chloride  calcium  acetate  enters  into  a  crystal- 
lizable  combination ;  it  also  dissolves  some  sulphate  of  lead. 

Barium  acetate  (C2H3O2)2Ba+lJH2O. — This  substance  is  pre- 
pared from  barium  carbonate  or  barium  sulphide  and  dilute  acetic 
acid.  Since  barium  carbonate,  which  is  found  native  as  witherite, 
and  barium  sulphide,  which  is  prepared  by  heating  barium  sul- 
phate with  bituminous  coal,  always  contain  iron  and  this  iron 
passes  into  solution,  it  is  separated  by  adding  some  barium  water 
after  the  point  of  neutralization  is  reached.  The  solution  is  then 
filtered  and  the  filtrate  again  neutralized  with  acetic  acid. 

At  a  low  temperature  the  solution  yields  colorless  crystals 
derived  from  a  rhombic  prism ;  they  are  extremely  deliquescent, 
readily  soluble  in  water,  but  with  difficulty  in  ordinary  alcohol 
and  almost  insoluble  in  absolute  alcohol.  They  show  a  slight 
alkaline  reaction,  contain  3  equivalents  (17.5  per  cent.)  of  water, 
and  are  isomorphous  with  normal  acetate  of  lead  (lead  sugar),  to 
be  described  later  on.  By  allowing  the  concentrated  solution  to 
crystallize  at  a  somewhat  higher  temperature  the  salt  absorbs, 
however,  only  1  equivalent  (6.5  per  cent.)  of  water. 

By  mixing  a  concentrated  solution  of  the  salt  with  sulphuric 
acid,  the  barium  sulphate  does  not  separate  in  the  ordinary  form 
of  a  fine  white  powder,  but  as  a  semi-transparent,  gelatinous  mass 
which  retains  acetic  acid ;  for  this  reason  barium  acetate  is  not 
suitable  for  obtaining  strong  acetic  acid. 

When  subjected  to  dry  distillation  barium  acetate  does  not 
yield  acetic  acid,  but  only  acetone  (and  very  little  empyreumatic 


272  VINEGAR,   CIDER,   AND   FRUIT-WINES. 

oil)  while  barium  carbonate  remains  behind.  It  is  the  best 
material  for  the  preparation  of  acetone.  The  decomposition  is 
best  effected  in  a  cast-iron  vessel.  With  barium  nitrate  it  gives  a 
well  crystallizing  double  salt. 

Strontium  acetate. — This  salt  is  prepared  in  a  manner  similar 
to  that  of  the  preceding.  The  crystals  obtained  at  32°  F.  contain 
5  equivalents  of  water  and  those  at  59°  F.  1  equivalent. 

With  strontium  nitrate  it  gives  a  double  salt  forming  beautiful 
crystals  which  contain  3  equivalents  of  water.  On  heating  they 
first  yield  their  water  of  crystallization  and  then  detonate,  a 
beautiful  purple  flame  being  formed. 

Magnesium  acetate  is  prepared  by  dissolving  magnesia  alba  or 
usta  in  acetic  acid.  It  crystallizes  with  difficulty  and  is  readily 
soluble  in  water  and  spirits  of  wine.  Only  a  very  small  portion 
of  the  solution  is  decomposed  by  ammonia.  By  dry  distillation 
it  yields  acetic  acid,  while  magnesia  remains  behind. 

Aluminium  acetate. — The  neutral  salt  A12(C2H3O2)6  has  never 
been  obtained  in  the  dry  state,  it  being  only  known  in  solution. 
The  pure  combination  can  be  prepared  by  introducing  freshly 
precipitated  and  thoroughly  washed  aluminium  hydrate  into 
heated  acetic  acid. 

Aluminium  acetate  is  of  great  importance  in  calico  printing 
and  is  used  as  a  mordant  under  the  name  of  red  liquw.  It  is 
manufactured  for  the  use  of  the  calico  printer  by  adding  to  every 
gallon  of  calcium  acetate  liquor  2{  Ibs.  of  alum,  agitating  the 
mixture  briskly  and  then  leaving  it  to  rest,  in  order  that  the 
calcium  sulphate  may  settle  down.  The  decomposition  of  the 
acetate  is  known  by  testing  a  small  portion  of  the  filtered  liquid 
in  a  tube  with  a  concentrated  solution  of  alum  ;  if  a  precipitate 
of  calcium  sulphate  falls,  more  alum  must  be  added,  till  the  acetate 
of  lime  is  completely  decomposed.  The  liquor  is  next  filtered 
off,  and  the  solution  concentrated  by  evaporation  till  it  acquires  a 
specific  gravity  of  1.087  to  1.1  ;  it  is  then  allowed  to  repose  for 
some  time  to  deposit  any  sulphate  of  lime  and  finally  drawn  off 
for  use.  The  quality  of  this  liquid  as  a  mordant  is  inferior  on 
account  of  the  imperfect  decomposition  of  the  lime-salt,  and  the 
presence  of  a  small  portion  of  lime  still  retained  in  the  red  liquor 


ACETATES   AND   THEIR   MANUFACTURE.  273 

which  impairs  very  much  the  beauty  and  gloss  of  the  color  given 
to  the  cloth. 

A  better  mordant  is  made  by  decomposing  alum  by  lead  acetate. 
Since  lead  sulphate  is  insoluble  the  decomposition  of  the  alum 
solution  is  more  perfect  than  when  it  is  acted  upon  by  acetate  of 
lime ;  nevertheless,  red  liquor  is  not  a  true  acetate,  but  a  mixture 
of  aluminium  acetate,  sulphate  and  hydrate,  with  potassium  sul- 
phate, as  will  be  seen  from  the  receipts  in  general  use  for  its 
manufacture.  In  practice  it  is  found  advantageous  to  employ 
equal  parts  of  alum  and  sugar  of  lead,  or  even  a  rather  less 
quantity  of  the  latter.  The  alum  is  dissolved  in  boiling  water, 
and  the  powdered  lead  acetate  added  to  the  solution.  About 
one-tenth  of  crystallized  carbonate  of  soda,  or  a  little  carbonate 
of  lime,  is  added  to  the  alum  to  combine  with  the  free  acid. 
The  three  following  receipts  serve  to  indicate  the  proportions 
employed  : — 

I.  Dissolve  100  pounds  of  alum  in  50  gallons  of  boiling  water, 
and  add  10  pounds  of  acetate  of  lead  in  fine  powder,  stirring  the 
mixture  well  at  first,  and  likewise  several  times  during  cooling. 

II.  Dissolve    100   pounds   of  alum  in  50  gallons  of  boiling 
water,  add  slowly  10  pounds  of  crystallized  carbonate  of  soda, 
and  then  stir  in  50  pounds  of  acetate  of  lead  in  powder. 

III.  Dissolve    100  pounds  of  alum  in  50  gallons  of  boiling 
water,  and  add  in  small  portions  6  pounds  of  crystallized  carbon- 
ate of  soda,  and   then  stir  in  50  pounds  of  acetate  of  lead,  in 
powder,  as  before. 

When  used  by  the  calico  printer  the  red  liquor  is  thickened 
with  gum  or  some  other  suitable  material,  and  with  it  the  design 
is  impressed  upon  the  cloth  by  a  wood  block,  or  by  any  other 
means;  on  subsequently  submitting  the  goods  to  the  drying-bath, 
acetic  acid  is  partly  volatilized,  and  the  aluminous  basic  compound 
remains  perfectly  combined  with  the  cloth. 

Grace  Calvert  states,  from  practical  observations,  that  a  sulpli- 
acetate  of  alumina  is  to  be  preferred  as  giving  the  most  satisfac- 
tory results.  He  considers  that  a  mordant  of  such  a  composition 
is  best  adapted  for  fixing  the  colors,  on  account  of  the  excess  of 
alumina  in  such  a  solution  above  those  which  contain,  besides  the 
.18 


274  VINEGAR,    CIDER,    AND   FRUIT-WINES. 

aluminous  salts,  salts  of  the  alkalies,  which  are  inert  in  the  uses 
for  which  red  liquor  is  manufactured. 

He  recommends  the  following  formulae  : — 

I.  Ammonia  alum,  453  pounds  ;  lead  acetate,  379  ;  water,  1132. 

II.  Aluminium  sulphate,  383  pounds ;  lead  acetate,  379  ;  water, 
1132. 

III.  Alum,  453  pounds,  and  a  quantity  of  solution  of  acetate  of 
lime,  amounting  to  158  pounds. 

IV.  Aluminium  sulphate,  333  pounds,  with  the  same  amount  of 
acetate  of  lime  solution. 

On  agitating  the  foregoing  mixtures,  decomposition  takes  place  ; 
sulphate  of  lead  or  of  lime  is  thrown  down  and  a  sulphacetate 
remains  with  an  equivalent  of  ammonium  sulphate  from  the  am- 
monia alum. 

In  1872,  Messrs.  Storck  &  Co.,  of  Asnieres,  France,  patented 
a  process  for  the  manufacture  of  aluminium  acetate  from  the 
phosphate.  Aluminium  phosphate  is  converted  into  acid  phos- 
phate by  dissolving  it  in  phosphoric  acid.  Soluble  aluminium 
acetate  and  insoluble  lead  sulphate  are  thus  formed.  The  alum- 
inium acetate  is  then  separated  by  filtration,  and  subsequently 
treated  in  a  manner  similar  to  that  obtained  for  industrial  pur- 
poses by  the  double  decomposition  with  aluminium  sulphate. 
The  phosphate  of  lead  is  either  used  to  produce  pure  phosphoric 
acid  by  decomposing  it  by  sulphuric  acid,  or  sulphuretted  hydro- 
gen, or  an  alkaline  phosphate  is  formed  thereof  by  treating  it 
with  an  alkaline  sulphide.  It  may  likewise  be  used  for  the  pro- 
duction of  phosphorus ;  in  this  case  it  is  mixed  with  charcoal  and 
subjected  to  distillation. 

Manganese  acetate,  Mn(C2H3O2)2.  This  substance  is  prepared 
by  dissolving  freshly  precipitated  manganous  carbonate  (MnCO3) 
in  heated  acetic  acid,  evaporating  the  solution  and  crystallizing. 
The  crystals  are  of  the  rhombic  prism,  and  occasionally  in  plates 
of  an  amethystine  color;  they  are  permanent  in  air,  soluble  in 
alcohol,  and  in  about  three  times  their  weight  of  water. 

On  a  large  scale  this  salt  is  manufactured  by  precipitating  a 
solution  of  manganous  sulphate*  by  one  of  lime  acetate  and 

*  Manganous  sulphate  is  prepared  by  mixing  the  dioxide  (pyrolusite)  with 
half  its  weight  of  concentrated  sulphuric  acid  and  heating  in  a  Hessian  cru- 


ACETATES   AND   THEIR   MANUFACTURE.  275 

agitating  the  liquor  to  decompose  the  whole  of  the  manganese 
salt. 

It  sometimes  happens  that  a  portion  of  the  manganese  salt  is 
not  acted  upon  by  the  acetate  of  lime  ;  in  this  case  a  concentrated 
solution  of  acetate  of  lead  is  employed  towards  the  end  of  the 
process  to  effect  the  complete  decomposition.  The  mixed  precip- 
itate of  sulphate  of  lime  and  lead  is  filtered  off,  and  the  filtrate 
evaporated  and  crystallized.  The  best  acetate  of  manganese  is 
made  by  adding  to  4  parts  of  manganous  sulphate  dissolved  in 
3  parts  of  water,  7  parts  of  crystallized  acetate  of  lead  dissolved 
in  3  parts  of  water,  agitating  the  solution,  and  drawing  off  the 
clear  liquor  for  use. 

Acetate  of  manganese  is  used  in  dyeing  and  calico  printing  to 
give  a  brown  color  to  fabrics.  Its  principle  of  action  depends 
upon  the  further  oxidation  of  the  manganese. 

Iron  acetates. — Acetic  acid  combines  with  ferrous  oxide  (FeO) 
as  well  as  with  ferric  oxide  (Fe2O3),  but  only  the  ferrous  acetate 
crystallizes  in  small  greenish  white  needles,  very  prone  to  oxi- 
dation ;  ferric  acetate  is  a  dark,  brownish  red,  uucrystallizable 
liquid,  of  powerful  and  astringent  taste.  Both  salts  dissolve 
freely  in  water,  and  are  of  importance  for  dyeing  and  calico 
printing. 

Ferrous  acetate,  Fe(C2H3O2)2.  For  dyeing  purposes  this  salt  is 
prepared  by  dissolving  wrought-iron  turnings  in  wood-vinegar, 
care  being  had  that  some  iron  remains  undissolved,  as  otherwise 
the  salt,  on  exposure  to  the  air,  is  gradually  partly  converted  into 
the  ferric  salt.  This  oxidation  proceeds,  however,  but  slowly, 
the  empyreumatic  substances  contained  in  the  wood-vinegar  ren- 
dering the  conversion  rather  difficult ;  the  pure  salt  oxidizes  with 
greater  rapidity.  For  commercial  purposes  this  compound  is 
manufactured  as  follows  :  Into  a  large  wooden  vat  or  into  barrels 
a  quantity  of  iron  turnings,  hoops,  or  nails  are  introduced,  and  hot 
crude  wood-vinegar,  freed  by  distillation  from  wood-spirit,  is  poured 
upon  them.  During  the  solution  of  the  iron  much  tarry  matter 
separates  which  is  skimmed  off,  and  the  solution  is  frequently 

cible  until  no  more  vapors  escape.  The  residue  is  dissolved  in  water,  filtered, 
and  allowed  to  crystallize  at  an  ordinary  temperature.  The  solution  of  the 
salt  when  decomposed  with  crystallized  soda  gives  a  precipitate  of  manganous 
carbonate. 


276  VINEGAR,   CIDER,    AND    FRUIT-WINES. 

agitated  to  free  it  as  much  as  possible  from  the  tar.  After  24 
hours  the  solution  is  drawn  off.  The  iron  being  entirely  coated 
with  tar  so  that  it  is  not  again  attacked  by  the  wood- vinegar,  it 
is  taken  from  the  vat  and  the  tar  ignited.  The  iron  being  freed 
from  the  oxide  formed  by  sifting  can  be  again  used.  The  solu- 
tion thus  obtained  shows  13°  or  14°  B. 

The  pure  salt  is  obtained  by  dissolving  iron  in  acetic  acid  or  by 
double  decomposition  from  ferrous  sulphate  (14  parts)  and  lead 
acetate  (19  parts);  and  cheaper,  but  less  pure,  from  ferrous  sul- 
phate and  calcium  acetate. 

If  crude  calcium  acetate  instead  of  wood- vinegar  is  to  be  used 
in  the  preparation  of  this  salt,  a  solution  of  the  calcium  acetate 
of  specific  gravity  1.08  is  mixed  with  half  its  weight  of  ferrous 
sulphate  dissolved  in  2J  times  its  weight  of  water.  On  agitating 
the  mixture  the  decomposition  is  rendered  complete,  the  clear 
liquor  which  is  siphoned  off  after  the  subsidence  of  the  sulphate 
of  lime  showing  13°  B.  It  is  kept  in  a  closed  barrel  in  which  is 
hung  a  bag  containing  a  quantity  of  iron  turnings. 

In  some  factories  the  ferrous  acetate  is  manufactured  by  de- 
composing the  carbonate  of  iron  (FeCO3)  with  lead  acetate ;  lead 
carbonate  precipitates,  and  the  blackish  supernatant  liquor  is  the 
acetate  of  iron  in  a  very  pure  state.  It  is  kept  from  oxidizing 
by  immersing  in  it  some  bright  iron  filings.  The  lead  salt 
formed  repays  the  cost  of  the  manufacture  of  the  acetate. 

Solution  of  ferrous  acetate  is  used  as  a  mordant  by  dyers,  for 
staining  wood  and  leather  and  in  the  manufacture  of  ink.  The 
commercial  article  generally  shows  a  specific  gravity  of  1.10 
(12°  B.). 

On  account  of  the  avidity  with  which  ferrous  acetate  absorbs 
oxygen,  it  is  of  great  value  as  a  reducing  agent.  It  is,  for  instance, 
used  in  the  preparation  of  aniline  from  nitrobenzole  and  for 
similar  reducing  processes. 

Neutral  ferric  acetate  or  sesquiacetate  of  iron,  Fe(C2H3O2)3.— 
For  technical  use  this  combination  is  obtained  by  dissolving 
wrought-irou  in  wood-vinegar  so  that  it  has  a  chance  to  oxidize 
in  the  air.  For  this  purpose  wood-vinegar  is  poured  over  iron 
turnings  in  a  vat,  and  after  drawing  off  the  solution,  in  a  few  days 
the  iron  is  for  some  time  left  to  the  action  of  the  oxygen  of  the 


ACETATES   AND   THEIK   MANUFACTURE.  277 

air.  It  quickly  oxidizes  and  by  pouring  back  the  solution  and 
several  times  repeating  the  drawing  off  and  pouring  back,  a  quite 
concentrated  solution  of  a  dark  red  brown,  nearly  black  color  is 
in  a  short  time  obtained.  Heat  must  not  be  employed  in  the 
preparation  of  this  salt,  as  in  such  case  it  readily  decomposes. 

Neutral  ferric  acetate  may  be  obtained  in  the  pure  state  by 
decomposing  a  solution  of  lead  acetate  by  addition  of  ferric  sul- 
phate in  slight  excess.  In  the  course  of  24  hours  the  excess  of 
ferric  sulphate  precipitates  as  a  basic  salt.  It  is  also  produced, 
though  more  slowly,  by  dissolving  ferric  hydrate  or  ferric  car- 
bonate obtained  by  precipitation,  in  strong  acetic  acid.  This 
method  occupies  more  time,  but  affords  better  guarantees  for  the 
purity  of  the  compound. 

By  dissolving  one  part  of  nitric  acid  or  aqua  regia,  precipitating 
the  solution  with  ammonia  and  dissolving  the  washed  ferric 
hydrate  in  10  parts  of  acetic  acid  of  1.042  specific  gravity  and 
evaporating  the  solution  at  from  140°  to  176°  F.  an  amorphous 
salt  soluble  in  water  and  alcohol  remains,  which  is,  however,  not 
neutral,  as  it  contains  only  2  instead  of  3  equivalents  of  acetic 
acid  for  1  equivalent  of  ferric  oxide.  By  dissolving  this  amor- 
phous salt  in  acetic  acid  and  exposing  the  dark  red  solution  to  a 
low  temperature,  the  neutral  salt  crystallizes  out  in  hydrated,  lus- 
trous, dark  red  laminae. 

On  heating  the  strongly  diluted  solution  of  this  salt  nearly  to 
the  boiling  point  its  color  becomes  more  intense  and  it  evolves 
a  distinct  odor  of  acetic  acid  without,  however,  producing  a  precipi- 
tate. The  salt  has  nevertheless  become  more  basic,  and  an  addi- 
tion of  any  soluble  sulphate  or  even  of  free  sulphuric  acid  immedi- 
ately precipitates  the  whole  of  the  iron  as  insoluble  basic  ferrous 
sulphate.  By  heating,  however,  the  dilute  solution  of  the  pure 
acetate  to  boiling  it  disengages  acetic  acid  and  separates  a  basic 
salt,  which,  if  boiling  be  continued,  also  loses  its  acid  so  that  ferric 
hydrate  remains  behind.  The  properties  of  this  hydrate  differ, 
however,  from  those  of  ordinary  ferric  hydrate,  it  being  only 
dissolved  in  concentrated  hydrochloric  acid  by  long-continued 
digestion  or  boiling  and  scarcely  attacked  by  boiling  concentrated 
sulphuric  acid.  In  acetic  acid  or  dilute  nitric  acid  it  dissolves, 
however,  to  a  red  fluid,  transparent  to  transmitted,  but  opaque  to 


278  VINEGAR,    CIDER,    AND   FRUIT-WINES. 

reflected,  light.  By  adding  the  slightest  quantity  of  a  sulphate  or 
of  concentrated  nitric  or  hydrochloric  acid,  a  granular  precipitate 
is  formed,  which,  however,  redissolves  on  diluting  the  fluid  with 
water.  If  a  solution  of  ferric  acetate  is  heated  in  a  closed  vessel 
to  212°  F.  for  a  few  hours,  the  fluid  seen  by  reflected  light  appears 
opaque  and  opalescent ;  it  lias  also  lost  its  metallic  taste  and  no 
longer  shows  the  other  reactions  of  ferric  salts,  i.  <?.,  addition  of 
ferrocyanide  produces  no  precipitate  nor  does  the  sulphcyanide 
augment  its  red  color.  A  trace  of  sulphuric  acid  or  any  alkaline 
salt  suffices  to  precipitate  the  whole  of  the  iron  in  solution  as 
ferric  hydrate  of  red  color,  which  is  totally  insoluble  in  all  acids  at 
an  ordinary  temperature ;  dilute  mineral  acids  do  not,  however, 
produce  a  similar  precipitate.  It  is  remarkable  that  this  ferric 
hydrate  dissolves  in  water  to  a  dark  red  fluid  which  can  be  again 
precipitated  by  concentrated  acids  or  alkaline  salts  (Pean  de 
St.  Giles). 

From  the  iron  acetates  the  iron  is  precipitated  as  black  ferrous 
sulphide  by  sulphuretted  hydrogen. 

With  ferric  nitrate  ferric  acetate  yields  a  crystallizable  double 
salt,  Fe  (C2H3O2)2NO3  +  3H2O,  the  solution  of  which  decomposes 
on  boiling,  nitric  and  acetic  acids  being  disengaged.  A  similar 
combination  exists  between  the  acetate  and  ferric  chloride. 

The  acetates  of  iron  are  employed  in  woollen  dyeing  to  produce 
blue  with  potassium  ferrocyanide  and  ferricyanidc ;  in  cotton 
dyeing  and  printing,  and  in  silk  dyeing  they  are  used  for  blacks, 
russets,  etc.  Ferrous  acetate  is  used  with  madder,  for  violet ;  or 
together  with  red  liquor,  for  brown ;  it  is  also  used  for  dyeing 
hats  and  furs  black  and  for  blackening  leather,  wood,  etc.  Some 
dyers  prefer  the  ferrous  acetate,  because,  by  the  oxidation  of  the 
iron  subsequently  to  dyeing,  the  colors  are  more  resistant ;  but 
greater  uniformity  of  the  ground  is  insured  by  the  use  of  ferric 
acetate.  For  the  preparation  of  ink  ferrous  acetate  is  to  be  pre- 
ferred. 

A  mixture  of  ferric  acetate  with  alcohol  and  acetic  ether  forms 
Klaproth's  tincture  of  iron,  which  is  used  in  medicine. 

Chromium  acetate*.— Acetic  acid  enters  into  combination  with 
chromous  (CrO)  as  well  as  with  chromic  oxide  (Cr2O3).  The  salts 
are  not  used  in  the  industries  and  are  only  of  scientific  interest. 


ACETATES   AND   THEIR    MANUFACTURE.  279 

• 

Chromous  acetate,  (C2H3O2)2Cr  -f  H2O,  is  prepared  by  mixing  a 
solution  of  chromous  chloride  with  sodium  acetate.  The  salt- 
separates  out  in  small,  lustrous  red  crystals  which  are  sparingly 
soluble  in  water  and  alcohol  and  quickly  oxidize  to  a  greater 
degree  on  exposure  to  the  air,  the  succeeding  salt  being  formed. 

Chromic  acetate. — A  neutral  salt  is  known  and  there  are  very 
likely  several  basic  ones.  The  solution  of  the  neutral  salt,  which 
is  obtained  by  dissolving  chromic  hydrate  in  heated  acetic  acid, 
forms  a  red  fluid,  green  in  a  reflected  and  red  in  a  transmitted 
light.  It  is  not  decomposed  by  boiling,  but  by  ammonia.  The 
precipitate,  however,  redissolves,  on  adding  ammonia  in  excess,  to 
a  violet-red  fluid  because  the  hydrate  is  soluble  in  ammonium 
acetate.  Hence,  a  solution  of  the  salt  acidulated  with  acetic  acid 
is  not  precipitated  by  ammonia. 

There  are  also  known  crystallized  combinations  of  this  salt 
with  chromic  chloride  and  sulphate  and  nitrate  of  chromium. 

If  the  solution  of  the  neutral  salt  is  for  some  time  digested 
with  chromic  hydrate,  it  acquires  a  darker  color,  the  acid  re-action 
disappears,  and  on  evaporating  a  green  powder  soluble  in  water 
remains  behind.  Ordway  has  described  a  purple  basic  salt. 

Nickel  acetate  forms  small  green  crystals  soluble  in  water,  but 
not  in  alcohol. 

Cobalt  acetate  forms  small  red  crystals,  the  concentrated  solution 
of  which  turns  blue  on  heating  but  again  red  on  cooling,  and  can, 
therefore,  be  used  as  sympathetic  ink. 

Zinc  acetate,  Fn(C2H3O2)2. — This  salt  may  be  prepared  by 
dissolving  metallic  zinc,  zinc  oxide  or  zinc  carbonate  in  acetic 
acid,  or  by  the  decomposition  of  zinc  sulphate  by  acetates  of  lime 
or  lead  similar  to  the  acetate  of  manganese.  The  acetate  is 
in  the  first  three  instances  simply  obtained  by  evaporation,  and 
in  the  latter,  after  agitating  the  mixture,  filtering  and  evaporating 
the  filtrate.  The  salt  crystallizes  in  flexible,  opalescent,  six-sided 
tables  which  effloresce  slightly  in  the  air.  Technically  the  best 
receipt  is  to  dissolve  4  parts  of  the  sulphate  of  zinc  and  7  J  parts 
of  acetate  of  lead  each  in  3  parts  of  hot  water,  mixing  the  solutions, 
agitating,  and  after  the  sulphate  of  lead  has  deposited,  drawing 
the  clear  liquid  off  to  crystallize. 


280  VINEGAR,    CIDER,    AND    FRUIT-WINES. 

Acetates  of  copper.  Cuprous  acetate,  Cu2(C2H3O2)2. — This  salt 
is  produced  by  subjecting  crystallized  verdigris  to  dry  distillation. 
It  is  a  white  substance  crystallizing  in  fine  needles,  which  are 
decomposed  by  water  into  yellow  cuprous  hydrate  and  cupric 
acetate. 

With  cupric  oxide  acetic  acid  forms  a  normal  and  several  basic 
salts. 

Neutral  cupric  acetate  ;  crystallized  verdigris,  Cu(C2H3O2)2. — The 
normal  cupric  acetate  may  be  prepared  by  dissolving  pure  cupric 
oxide  or  cupric  hydrate  in  pure  acetic  acid  or  by  employing,  instead 
of  the  pure  oxide,  copper  scales  whose  content  of  metallic  copper 
and  of  cuprous  oxide  is  converted  into  cupric  oxide  by  moistening 
with  nitric  acid  and  gentle  glowing ;  the  cupric  oxide  thus  obtained 
is  washed  to  remove  foreign  substances.  The  conversion  of  the 
cuprous  oxide  into  cupric  oxide  is  especially  essential  when  the 
acetic  acid  is  not  entirely  free  from  hydrochloric  acid,  as  other- 
wise cuprous  chloride  is  formed  which  dissolves  with  difficulty. 

If  copper  scales  cannot  be  obtained,  hydrated  basic  carbonate 
of  copper  can  be  prepared  by  precipitating  sulphate  of  copper 
with  soda,  and,  after  washing  and  pressing,  dissolving  in  acetic 
acid.  Sulphate  of  soda  remains  dissolved  in  the  water,  and  this 
solution  can  eventually  be  utilized  for  the  conversion  of  crude 
calcium  acetate  into  sodium  salt.  Instead  of  soda,  milk  of  lime 
can  also  be  used  for  the  decomposition  of  the  sulphate  of  copper : 
a  mixture  of  calcium  sulphate  and  cupric  hydrate  is  precipitated. 
By  adding  acetic  acid  the  latter  is  redissolved  while  the  calcium 
sulphate  remains  suspended.  When  the  latter  has  settled  the 
solution  is  drawn  off  and  evaporated.  The  calcium  sulphate  is 
repeatedly  washed  with  small  portions  of  water,  and  the  wash- 
waters  used  for  dissolving  fresh  quantities  of  sulphate  of  copper. 

In  case  the  sulphate  of  copper  contains  iron  the  latter  is  re- 
moved by  digesting  the  solution  for  several  days  with  basic  car- 
bonate of  copper.  The  presence  of  iron  is  recognized  by  the  sul- 
phate not  dissolving  entirely  in  ammonia  in  excess,  but  leaving 
behind  a  red-brown  residue  (ferric  hydrate). 

The  neutral  acetate  can  also  be  prepared  by  dissolving  the 
basic  salt,  verdigris  (described  below),  in  acetic  acid.  The  solu- 


ACETATES   AND   THEIR   MANUFACTURE.  281 

tion  is  filtered  and  evaporated  until  a  crystalline  film  is  formed. 
This  method  is,  however,  expensive. 

The  method  by  double  decomposition  may  be  recommended 
for  preparing  the  neutral  acetate  on  a  small  scale,  but  not  for 
manufacturing  purposes.  Sulphate  of  copper  (125  parts)  and 
sodium  acetate  (136  parts)  decompose  each  other,  neutral  cupric 
acetate  crystallizing  out  while  sodium  sulphate  remains  in  solution. 
The  yield  is,  however,  somewhat  smaller  than  theoretically  might 
be  expected,  because  the  sulphate  of  copper  is  not  entirely  insolu- 
ble in  sodium  sulphate  solution.  By  this  process  the  object  is 
quickly  accomplished  and  for  this  reason  is  decidedly  to  be  pre- 
ferred to  the  following  :  Sulphate  of  copper  (125  parts)  and  nor- 
mal lead  acetate  (190  parts)  decompose  completely  only  in  dilute 
but  not  in  concentrated  solutions.  Hence  strong  evaporation  is 
required  whereby  acetic  acid  is  lost.  Further,  with  the  use  of 
lead  acetate  some  of  the  newly  formed  lead  sulphate  is  obtained  in 
solution ;  but  the  lead  cannot  be  separated  with  sulphuretted 
hydrogen  because  the  latter  would  decompose  also  the  copper  salt. 
The  disadvantage  of  substituting  calcium  acetate  for  the  lead 
acetate  is  that  it  is  not  crystallized  and  hence  furnishes  no  ex- 
ternal criterion  of  purity  ;  in  fact  it  always  has  a  slightly  varying 
composition.  If  a  small  excess  of  calcium  salt  has  been  used,  the 
latter,  after  the  calcium  sulphate  is  filtered  off  and  the  solution 
evaporated,  does  not  remain  in  the  mother  lye,  but  crystallizes 
out  as  double  salt  (see  below),  together  with  the  copper  salt. 
Since  these  acetates  create  difficulties,  and  as  each  of  them  must 
first  be  prepared  by  the  manufacturer  by  means  of  acetic  acid,  it 
would  seem  more  rational  to  directly  use  this  acetic  acid  for  dis- 
solving the  cupric  oxide,  whereby  no  by-products  of  little  value, 
such  as  sulphate  of  lead,  calcium  and  sodium,  are  formed. 

The  evaporation  of  the  solution  of  cupric  acetate  obtained  by 
any  of  the  above  methods  is  effected  in  a  copper  boiler  over  an 
open  fire,  or,  still  better,  by  steam.  It  is  recommended  to  close 
the  boiler  so  that  the  escaping  vapors  of  water  and  acetic  acid 
are  condensed  in  a  worm.  Independently  of  the  fact  that  by  these 
means  the  escaping  acetic  acid  is  regained  and  can  be  used  for 
other  purposes,  a  great  advantage  is  that  the  air  of  the  workroom 
is  thereby  not  contaminated  by  flying  particles  of  salt. 


282  VINEGAR,   CIDER,    AND    FRUIT-WINES. 

Crystallization  is  generally  effected  in  stone-ware  pots  into 
which  dip  a  number  of  slender  wooden  rods.  The  pots  are 
placed  in  a  warm  room.  Crystallization  is  finished  in  about  14 
days.  The  crystals  turn  out  especially  beautiful  when  the  acid 
somewhat  preponderates  and  the  cooling  of  the  solution  is  effected 
very  slowly. 

The  salt  forms  dark  green*  rhombic  prisms  of  a  nauseous 
metallic  taste,  which  dissolve  in  14  parts  of  cold  and  5  parts  of 
boiling  water,  and  are  also  soluble  in  alcohol.  Heated  in  the 
air  the  crystals  burn  with  a  green  flame. 

Neutral  cupric  acetate  contains  in  100  parts,  cupric  oxide 
39.8,  anhydrous  acetic  acid  51.1,  water  9. 

On  heating,  the  dilute  solution  of  the  neutral  salt  yields  acetic 

O/ 

acid  and  deposits  a  basic  salt ;  hence  the  use  of  strongly  diluted 
acetic  acid  or  even  distilled  vinegar  is  not  suitable  for  the  prepa- 
ration of  crystallized  verdigris.  By  long-continued  digestion  with 
freshly  glowed  charcoal  the  dilute  solution  yields  its  entire  con- 
tent of  copper  to  the  latter ;  hence  vinegar  containing  copper  can 
be  purified  in  this  manner  (2  or  3  per  cent,  of  charcoal  being  suffi- 
cient). The  crystals  of  normal  cupric  acetate,  after  drying  in 
vacuo,  lose  no  more  water  at  212°  F.,  but  give  off  9  per  cent,  of 
their  water  between  230°  and  284°  F.  By  destructive  distilla- 
tion cupric  acetate  yields  strong  acetic  acid  which  contains  acetone 
and  is  contaminated  with  copper.  Cuprous  oxide  (Cu2O)  is  obtained 
111  red  octahedral  crystals  when  the  neutral  salt  is  heated  with  or- 
ganic substances,  such  as  sugar,  honey,  starch,  etc.  With  the 
acetates  of  potassium,  sodium,  and  calcium,  normal  cupric  acetate 
gives  double  salts  of  a  vivid  blue  color,  which  form  fine  crystals. 
The  chief  use  of  normal  cupric  acetate  in  the  arts  is  in  making 
pigments  and  for  resisting  the  blue  color  which  the  indigo  would 
communicate  in  the  indigo  bath  of  the  calico  printer.  In  the 
latter  case  its  mode  of  action  depends  on  the  readiness  with  which 
it  parts  with  oxygen,  whereby  the  indigo  is  oxidized  before  it 
can  exert  any  action  on  the  cloth,  being  itself  reduced  to  the 

*  There  is  also  another  salt  of  a  beautiful  blue  color,  which  contains,  how- 
ever, 5  equivalents  of  water  (Wohler).  It  is  prepared  by  exposing  a  solu- 
tion of  the  salt  mixed  with  free  acetic  acid  to  a  low  temperature.  At  95O  F. 
it  passes  into  the  ordinary  green  salt. 


ACETATES   AND   THEIR   MANUFACTURE.  283 

state  of  acetate  of  suboxide  of  copper.  Crystallized  verdigris  is 
occasionally  employed  as  a  transparent  green  water  color  or  wash 
for  tinting  maps.  In  medicine  it  is  used  for  external  application. 
It  is  poisonous  like  all  soluble  copper  salts. 

Basic  cupric  acetates.  Sesquibasic  cupric  acetate  (Cu(C2H3O2)2)2 
CuO  +  6H2O. — This  compound  is  obtained  pure  by  gradually 
adding  ammonia  to  a  boiling  concentrated  solution  of  the  normal 
acetate  until  the  precipitate,  which  is  at  first  formed,  is  redis- 
solved.  As  the  liquor  cools  the  new  salt  then  crystallizes  out  in 
beautiful  blue-green  scales,  which  at  212°  F.  lose  10.8  per  cent, 
of  their  water.  Their  aqueous  solution  is  decomposed  by  boiling, 
acetic  acid  being  given  off  and  the  black  oxide  of  copper  pre- 
cipitated. 

Dibasic  cupric  acetate,  Cu(C2H3O2)2CuO  4-  6H2O,  constitutes 
the  greater  part  of  the  blue  variety  of  verdigris.  It  forms  beau- 
tiful, delicate,  blue,  crystalline  needles  and  scales,  which  when 
ground  form  a  fine  blue  powder.  When  heated  to  140°  F.  they 
lose  23.45  per  cent,  of  water  and  become  transformed  into  a 
beautiful  green,  a  mixture  composed  of  the  neutral  and  tribasic 
acetates.  By  repeated  exhaustion  with  water  the  dibasic  is  re- 
solved into  the  insoluble  tribasic  salt,  and  a  solution  of  the  nor- 
mal and  sesquibasic  cupric  acetates. 

Tribasic  cupric  acetate,  Cu(C2H3O2)22CuO  -f  3H2O.  —  This 
compound  is  the  most  stable  of  any  of  the  acetates  of  copper.  It 
is  prepared  by  boiling  the  aqueous  solution  of  the  neutral  acetate, 
by  heating  it  with  alcohol,  by  digesting  its  aqueous  solution  with 
cupric  hydrate,  or  by  exhausting  blue  verdigris  with  water,  as 
mentioned  above.  The  first  methods  yield  the  salt  in  the  form 
of  a  bluish  powder  composed  of  needles  and  scales,  the  last  as  a 
bright  green  powder.  This  salt  gives  off  all  its  water  at  352° 
F. ;  at  a  higher  temperature  it  decomposes  and  evolves  acetic 
acid.  Boiling  water  decomposes  the  solid  tribasic  acetate  into  a 
brown  mixture  of  the  same  salt  with  cupric  oxide. 

Under  the  name  of  verdigris  two  varieties  of  basic  cupric 
acetate  are  found  in  commerce :  French  verdigris  which  occurs 
in  globular,  bluish-green,  crystalline  masses,  but  also  in  amor- 
phous masses,  and  English  verdigris  of  a  pure  green  color  and 


284  VINEGAR,   CIDER,    AND   FRUIT-WINES. 

crystalline  structure,  which  is,  however,  also  manufactured  in 
Germany  and  Sweden. 

The  first  variety  is  chiefly  manufactured  in  the  region  around 
Montpellier,  France.  The  refuse  of  grapes,  after  the  extraction 
of  the  juice,  is  placed  in  casks  until  acetous  fermentation  takes 
place.  The  casks  or  vessels  are  covered  with  matting  to  protect 
them  from  dirt,  At  the  end  of  two  or  three  days  the  fermenting 
materials  are  removed  to  other  vessels  in  order  to  check  the  pro- 
cess, to  prevent  putrefaction.  The  limit  to  which  fermentation 
should  be  carried  is  known  by  introducing  a  test-sheet  of  copper 
into  the  mass  for  24  hours ;  if,  on  withdrawing  it  at  the  end  of 
that  time,  it  is  found  covered  with  a  uniform  green  coating,  the 
proper  degree  of  fermentation  is  reached. 

Sheets  of  copper  are  prepared  by  hammering  bars  of  the  metal 
to  the  thickness  of  about  -^  of  an  inch  (the  more  compact  the 
copper  sheets  the  better),  and  they  are  then  cut  into  pieces  of  6 
or  8  inches  long  by  3  to  4  broad.  Sometimes  old  ship-sheathing 
is  used  and  cut  into  pieces  of  the  required  size.  The  sheets  are 
immersed  in  a  concentrated  solution  of  verdigris  and  allowed  to 
dry.  When  the  materials  are  all  found  to  be  in  proper  condition, 
the  copper  sheets  are  laid  on  a  horizontal  wooden  grating  in  the 
middle  of  a  vat,  on  the  bottom  of  which  is  placed  a  pan  of  burn- 
ing charcoal,  which  heats  them  to  about  200°  F.  In  this  state 
they  are  put  into  large  stoneware  jars  with  alternate  layers  of  the 
fermenting  grape  lees ;  the  vessels  are  covered  with  straw  mats 
and  left  at  rest.  At  the  end  of  10  to  20  days  they  are  opened  to 
ascertain  if  the  operation  is  complete.  If  the  upper  layer  of  the 
lees  appears  whitish  and  the  whole  has  worked  favorably,  the 
sheets  will  be  covered  with  silky  crystals  of  a  green  color.  The 
sheets  are  then  taken  from  the  jars  and  placed  upright  in  a  cellar, 
one  against  the  other.  At  the  end  of  two  or  three  days  they  are 
moistened  with  water  and  again  placed  to  dry.  This  moistening 
with  water  is  continued  at  regular  intervals  of  a  week  for  six  or 
eight  times.  This  treatment  causes  the  sheets  to  swell  and 
become  incrusted  with  increased  coatings  of  the  copper  salt, 
which  are  detached  from  the  remainder  of  the  sheets  by  a  copper 
knife.  The  scraped  plates  are  submitted  to  a  fresh  treatment  till 
the  whole  of  the  copper  is  converted  into  verdigris.  The  salt 


ACETATES   AND   THEIK   MANUFACTURE.  285 

scraped  off  is  made  into  a  consistent  paste  by  kneading  with  a 
little  water,  and  in  this  state  is  packed  into  leathern  bags  which 
are  placed  in  the  sun  to  dry  until  the  mass  hardens  and  forms 
the  tough  substance  which  constitutes  the  commercial  article. 

In  England,  Germany,  and  Sweden  copper  sheets  are  moistened 
with  a  solution  of  verdigris  in  vinegar  and  placed  in  a  warm 
room,  or  woollen  cloths  moistened  with  the  above  solution  are 
used,  which  are  placed  alternately  with  the  copper  sheets  in  a 
square  wooden  box.1  The  woollen  cloths  are  moistened  with  the 
solution  every  three  days  for  12  or  15  days  when  small  crystals 
commence  to  form  on  the  sheets.  The  sheets  are  then  drawn 
every  six  days  through  water  and  replaced  in  the  box,  but  not  in 
direct  contact  with  the  woollen  cloths,  small  disks  of  copper  or 
small  pieces  of  wood  being  placed  between  each  cloth  and  sheet. 
The  woollen  cloths  are  now  more  thoroughly  saturated  than 
before,  but  with  a  weaker  solution.  With  a  temperature  of  from 
54°  to  59°  F.,  6  to  8  weeks  are  required  before  the  verdigris  can 
be  scraped  off.  The  product  is  not  identical  with  that  obtained 
by  the  French  method,  it  being  somewhat  poorer  in  acetic  acid, 
and  hence  its  color  is  not  bluish-green  but  almost  pure  green. 

According  to  Philipps  the  composition  of  the  two  varieties  of 
verdigris  is  as  follows  : — 

English 

French  crystallized 

verdigris.  verdigris. 

Cupric  oxide 43.5  43.25 

Anhydrous  acetic  acid           ....     29.3  28.3 

Water           .     .' 25.2  28.45 

Impurities    .......       2. 

On  account  of  having  more  body  the  globular  verdigris  is  pre- 
ferred by  painters,  notwithstanding  its  being  more  expensive  and 
less  pure  than  the  green  article.  It  is  frequently  adulterated 
with  gypsum  or  chalk  and  also  with  heavy  spar.  If  efferves- 
cence is  produced  by  pouring  pure  hydrochloric  or  nitric  acid 
over  the  verdigris  and  the  filtrate  precipitated  by  sulphuric  acid, 
chalk  is  present.  If  a  white  residue  remains  on  digesting  the 
verdigris  with  an  equal  weight  of  acetic  acid  of  1.045  specific 
gravity,  gypsum  or  heavy  spar  has  been  added.  In  case  this 
residue,  after  washing  with  a  mixture  of  acetic  acid  and  spirits  of 


286  VINEGAR,   CIDER,   AND   FRUIT-WINES. 

wine  until  a  sample  of  the  filtrate  is  no  longer  colored  blue  by 
ammonia,  and  then  treating  with  distilled  water,  yields  a  fluid 
which  produces  precipitates  with  barium  chloride  as  well  as  with 
ammonium  oxalate,  it  consists  of  or  contains  gypsum;  in  the 
other  case  heavy  spar  is  present. 

Considerable  quantities  of  the  neutral  as  well  as  of  the  basic 
cupric  acetate  arc  used  in  calico  printing,  for  painting  in  oil,  and 
for  the  manufacture  of  paints,  especially  of  the  so-called  Schwein- 
furth  green,  which  is  a  crystalline  combination  of  copper  acetate 
and  arsenite. 

By  gradually  adding  through  a  fine  brass  sieve  a  thin  paste  of 
5  parts  of  verdigris  rubbed  up  in  5  parts  of  lukewarm  water 
to  a  boiling  solution  of  4  parts  of  arsenious  acid  in  50  parts  of 
water,  an  amorphous  yellowish-green  precipitate  is  formed  which 
consists  of  copper  arsenite  and  is  called  Scheele's  green.  By  con- 
tinuing the  heating  and  adding  acetic  acid  to  the  boiling  mixture 
it  gradually  becomes  crystalline  and  acquires  a  very  beautiful 
green  color;  it  is  then  known  as  Schweinfurth  green,  and  only 
requires  washing  with  a  little  water  and  drying.  The  same  com- 
bination can  also  be  obtained  from  cupric  sulphate  and  sodium 
arsenate  and  acetate. 

Schweinfurth  green  as  found  in  commerce  is  a  fine  crystalline 
powder  of  a  lustrous  green  color,  which,  however,  becomes  paler 
and  loses  some  of  its  beauty  by  rubbing.  It  is  insoluble  in 
water,  but  is  decomposed  by  long-continued  boiling  in  water  and 
then  becomes  brown.  Like  all  copper  salts  it  dissolves  with  a 
blue  color  in  ammonia  and  is  decomposed  by  alkalies  and  alka- 
line earths,  pale-blue  cupric  hydrate  being  separated.  By  boiling 
the  mixture  the  cupric  hydrate  is  first  converted  into  black  oxide 
and  then  reduced  by  the  arsenious  acid  to  red  oxide,  the  solution 
now  containing  alkaline  arsenate.  Mineral  acids  and  even  glacial 
acetic  acid  decompose  the  pigment  by  taking  away  the  cupric 
oxide  and  liberating  the  arsenious  acid. 

Schweinfurth  green  is  much  used,  especially  in  the  manufacture 
of  colored  .paper,  wall-paper,  artificial  flowers,  and  light  fabrics. 
It  is,  however,  very  poisonous,  and  the  use  of  articles  dyed  with 
it  has  frequently  caused  sickness  and  even  death  by  the  dust 
reaching  the  respiratory  organs. 


ACETATES   AND   THEIR   MANUFACTURE.  287 

Dibasic  cupric  acetate  and  mercuric  chloride  (corrosive  subli- 
mate) combine  to  a  blue  crystallizable  combination  which  dis- 
solves with  difficulty  in  water  •  it  is  decomposed  by  boiling  with 
water. 

Lead  Acetates. 

With  plumbic  oxide  acetic  acid  gives  a  neutral  as  well  as  sev- 
eral basic  salts.  The  most  important  of  these  combinations  are 
the  neutral  salt,  known  in  commerce  as  sugar  of  lead,  and  a  basic 
salt  by  means  of  which  white  lead  is  obtained. 

Neutral  acetate  of  lead  (sugar  of  lead),  Pb(C2H3O2)2  +  3  HO.— 
According  to  VolckePs  method,  acetic  acid  prepared  from  wood- 
vinegar  and  rectified  over  potassium  bichromate  is  saturated  with 
litharge,  filtered  or  decanted,  and  after  a  further  addition  of  acetic 
acid  until  a  slightly  acid  reaction  takes  place,  evaporated  to  the 
crystallizing  point. 

By  saturating  acetic  acid  with  litharge,  a  solution  of  basic  salt 
is  obtained,  which  is  later  on  converted  into  neutral  salt  by  the 
addition  of  acetic  acid.  This  is  more  suitable  than  using  only  as 
much  litharge  as  the  acetic  acid  requires  for  the  formation  of  the 
neutral  salt,  because  the  litharge  dissolves  with  greater  ease  in 
solution  of  sugar  of  lead  than  in  acetic  acid. 

Solution  of  sugar  of  lead,  like  solution  of  neutral  cupric  acetate, 
permits  the  evaporation  of  acetic  acid  in  boiling ;  and,  hence,  it  is 
best  to  use  strong  acetic  acid,  because  less  will  have  to  be  evapo- 
rated and  the  loss  of  acetic  acid  be  consequently  smaller.  By 
taking,  for  instance,  acetic  acid  of  1.057  specific  gravity,  for  100 
Ibs.  of  it  82  Ibs.  of  litharge  are  required  for  the  formation  of  the 
neutral  salt.  A  larger  quantity  is,  however,  taken  (from  100  to 
180  Ibs.),  so  that  a  basic  salt  is  formed,  or,  with  100  Ibs.,  a  mix- 
ture of  neutral  and  basic  salts.  To  recognize  the  point  of  neu- 
tralization in  the  subsequent  addition  of  acetic  acid,  litmus  paper 
is  used,  or,  still  better,  dilute  solution  of  corrosive  sublimate  (1 
part  of  corrosive  sublimate  in  100  of  water),  which  does  not 
change  the  neutral  salt,  but  produces  turbidity'  in  the  basic 
(Biichner).  Hence,  by  from  time  to  time  testing  the  lead  solu- 
tion with  this  reagent,  the  point  of  neutralization  is  reached  the 


288  VINEGAR,   CIDER,    AND   FRUIT-WINES. 

moment  turbidity  ceases.  This  test  is  better  than  with  litmus, 
considerable  experience  being  required  to  hit  the  right  point  with 
the  latter  on  account  of  solution  of  sugar  of  lead  showing  a  slight, 
but  perceptible,  acid  reaction. 

The  solution  of  litharge  in  acetic  acid  is  promoted  by  heat  and 
is  effected  either  in  a  copper  pan,  the  bottom  and  sides  of  which 
are  brought  in  contact  with  a  few  bright  sheets  of  lead  (to  pre- 
vent the  copper  from  being  attacked),  or  in  a  lead  pan  over  an 
open  fire,  or  in  a  wooden  vat  into  which  steam  is  introduced. 
The  clear  solution  is  evaporated.  If  this  is  to  be  done  over  an 
open  fire,  it  is  recommended  to  have  a  preparatory  heating  pan  for 
each  evaporating  pan,  as  described  in  the  preparation  of  calcium 
acetate,  the  preparatory  heating  pan,  which  is  heated  by  the  es- 
caping gases,  being  used  for  the  solution  of  the  litharge  in  acetic 
acid.  Lead  pans,  if  used,  should  rest  upon  strong  cast-iron  plates. 
The  dimensions  of  the  pans  vary  very  much ;  according  to 
Assmus,  they  are  6J  feet  long,  4  feet  wide,  and  from  12  to  14  inches 
deep,  while  the  depth  of  the  preparatory  heating  pans  is  from  24 
to  28  inches.  From  the  latter,  which  stand  at  a  higher  level, 
the  clear  solution  is  discharged,  through  a  stop-cock  just  above 
the  bottom,  into  the  evaporating  pans.  Evaporation  should  be 
effected  at  a  moderate  heat ;  actual  boiling  must  be  strictly 
avoided,  as  otherwise  large  losses  of  acetic  acid  are  unavoidable 
and  the  solution  readily  acquires  a  yellow  coloration. 

According  to  the  degree  of  evaporation  (to  36°  B.  or  to  46°  B. 
or  more)  of  the  sugar  of  lead  solution,  distinct  crystals  are  ob- 
tained or  only  a  radiated  crystalline  mass.  With  a  perfectly 
pure  solution,  the  first  method  is  the  best,  since  crystals  bring  a 
better  price.  The  mother-lye,  after  being  again  acidulated,  is 
once  more  evaporated  and  acidulated,  and  yields  more  crystals. 

Stein  recommends  the  conducting  of  the  vapors  of  acetic  acid  or 
of  vinegar  into  litharge  mixed  with  a  very  small  quantity  of  water. 
This  method  is  in  general  use  in  Germany.  But  as  the  extract 
remaining  in  the  still  retains  a  considerable  quantity  of  acetic 
acid,  especially  if  beer  had  been  added  to  the  liquid  used  in  the 
preparation  of  the  vinegar,  it  is  advisable  to  increase  the  boiling 
point  of  the  latter  by  the  addition  of  one-third  of  its  weight  of 
common  or  rock  salt.  At  first  the  water  condenses  in  the  receiver 


ACETATES    AND   THEIR    MANUFACTURE. 


289 


and  the  volume  of  the  fluid  containing  the  litharge  increases,  but, 
when  the  boiling  point  is  reached,  in  the  condensing  vessels,  only 
the  acetic  acid  is  retained,  while  the  litharge  is  first  converted 
into  sexbasic  and  then  into  tribasic  acetate.  To  obtain,  however, 
neutral  salt,  either  the  vapors  must  be  somewhat  expanded  or 
several  condensing  vessels  placed  one  after  the  other. 

Fig.  63  shows  the  distilling  apparatus,  consisting  of  a  boiler,  a, 
of  strong  sheet-copper.  The  vapors  pass  through  a  copper-pi pe, 
6,  into  the  wooden  vat  c,  lined  with  lead,  and  about  35  inches  in 
diameter  and  67  inches  deep.  In  this  vat  are  four  bottoms,  <7, 
of  thick  lead  provided  with  fine  perforations.  Short  lead  pipes, 
soldered  into  these  bottoms  and  arranged  as  shown  in  the  figure, 
serve  to  conduct  the  vinegar  vapors  in  the  vat  to  and  fro  in  the 
interspaces  between  the  lead  bottoms.  For  each  still  at  least 
three  of  such  vats  are  connected  with  each  other.  Upon  the 
lead  bottoms  is  first  placed  a  layer  of  linen  or  of  flannel,  and 
next  a  layer  of  litharge  2  to  4  inches  deep.  To  prevent  the 
litharge  from  packing,  it  is  mixed  with  an  equal  volume  of 

Fig.  63. 


pebbles  about  the  size  of  a  pea.  The  vats  are  provided  with 
lids  of  sheet-copper  coated  with  lead.  From  the  lid  of  the  last 
vat  a  pipe  leads  to  a  worm  surrounded  with  cold  water.  The 
stop-cocks  on  the  bottoms  of  the  vats  permit  the  discharge  of  the 
19 


290  VINEGAR,    CIDER,    AND    FRUIT-WINES. 

collected  lead  solution,  which  is  effected  (with  the  use  of  acetic 
acid)  when  it  shows  a  specific  gravity  of  at  least  36°  B.  The 
solution  being,  however,  basic,  it  is  acidulated  with  strong  acetic 
acid  and  brought  into  the  crystallizing  vessels. 

This  method  is  decidedly  the  best,  because  the  evaporation"  of 
the  solution  is  entirely  or  almost  entirely  omitted  and  the  air  of 
the  workroom  is  not  contaminated  by  particles  of  sugar  of  lead, 
which  is  very  injurious  to  the  health  of  the  workmen.  Further- 
more, this  method  does  not  require  the  use  of  pure  acetic  acid, 
since  the  impurities  remain  in  the  still.  This,  however,  holds 
good  only  for  non-volatile  impurities.  For  the  production  of 
colorless  salt,  the  crude  acetic  acid  from  wood-vinegar  must 
necessarily  be  purified,  as  above  mentioned,  by  potassium  chro- 
matc  and  sulphuric  acid. 

The  crystallizing  pans  are  either  of  stone- ware  or  of  wood 
lined  with  lead  or  thin  copper,  to  which  is  soldered  a  strip  of  lead 
down  the  sides  and  across  the  bottom,  with  the  idea  of  rendering 
the  metal  more  electro-negative  so  as  to  prevent  the  acetic  acid 
from  acting  on  it.  The  wooden  crystallizing  pans  are  about  4 
feet  long  by  2  feet  wide  and  from  6  to  8  inches  deep,  sloping 
inwards  at  the  edges.  Shallow,  slightly  conical  copper  vessels  6 
inches  deep  with  a  diameter  of  29 J  inches  at  the  bottom  and  31 J 
inches  at  the  top  are  also  used.  The  stone- ware  pans  are  placed 
upon  a  slightly  inclined  level  covered  with  lead.  In  these  small 
pans  crystallization  is  complete  in  24  hours,  while  from  48  to  72 
hours  are  required  with  the  use  of  the  larger  wooden  vessels. 
Crystallization  being  complete,  the  mother-lye  is  removed  and 
the  vessels  placed  upon  a  wooden  frame  over  a  gutter  of  sheet- 
lead  to  drain  off,  as. shown  in  Figs.  64  and  65. 

If  especially  beautiful  crystals  are  to  be  obtained,  the  first 
crystals,  which  are  not  very  distinct,  are  again  dissolved  in 
the  water  obtained  by  the  condensation  of  the  vapors  escaping 
from  the  still.  The  solution  being  evaporated  to  the  proper 
density  is  again  allowed  to  crystallize.  The  crystals  after  suffi- 
cient draining  are  placed  upon  linen  spread  over  wooden  hurdles 
and  dried  at  a  moderate  heat,  not  exceeding  75°  F.  In  some 
factories  the  heated  air  of  a  stove,  placed  outside  the  drying 
house,  is  conveyed  through  pipes  passing  round  the  interior  ;  at 


ACETATES   AND   THEIR   MANUFACTURE. 


291 


other  places  steam  heat  is  employed  for  this  purpose,  which  is 
much  to  be  preferred  on  account  of  its  being  more  easily  regu- 
lated. 


Fig.  64. 


Fig.  65. 


When  working  on  a  large  scale  a  centrifugal  is  advantageously 
employed  for  the  separation  of  the  niother-lye  in  the  same  manner 
as  recommended  for  the  preparation  of  sodium  acetate  (p.  243). 

Litharge  being  quite  impure  plumbic  oxide  never  dissolves 
entirely,  and  frequently  contains  over  10  per  cent,  of  impurities, 
consisting  of  sand,  clay,  red  lead  or  minium  (Pb3O4),  metallic  lead, 
traces  of  silver,  cupric,  and  ferric  oxides.  The  cupric  oxide 
passes  into  the  sugar  of  lead  solution  and  colors  it  slightly  blue. 
To  separate  the  copper  bright  sheets  of  lead  are  dipped  into  the 
solution,  the  copper  separating  upon  them  in  the  form  of  a  dark 
slime.  The  sheets  of  lead  must  be  frequently  cleansed  (scraped), 
as  otherwise  they  lose  their  effect.  When  there  is  a  large  accu- 
mulation of  litharge  residue,  it  can  be  worked  for  silver. 

Sugar  of  lead  can  also  be  prepared  from  metallic  lead,  the  pro- 
cess having  been  recommended  first  by  Berard,  and  is  said,  by 
Rtmge,  to  yield  a  good  product  with  great  economy.  Granulated 
lead,  the  tailings  in  the  white  lead  manufacture,  etc.,  are  put  in 
several  vessels,  say  eight,  one  above  the  other,  upon  steps,  so 
that  the  liquid  may  be  run  from  one  to  the  other.  The  upper 
one  is  filled  with  acetic  acid,  and  after  half  an  hour  let  off  into 
the  second,  after  another  half  an  hour  into  the  third,  and  so  on 
to  the  last  or  eighth  vessel.  The  acid  causes  the  lead  to  absorb 
oxygen  so  rapidly  from  the  air  as  to  become  hot.  When  the  acid 
runs  off  from  the  lowest,  it  is  thrown  on  the  uppermost  vessel  a 
second  time  and  carries  off  the  acetate  of  lead  formed  ;  after  pass- 


292  VINEGAR,   CIDER,   AND   FRUIT-WINES. 

ing  through  the  whole  series  the  solution  is  so  strong  that  it  may 
be  evaporated  at  once  so  as  to  crystallize. 

Apparently  this  method  has  a  considerable  advantage  over  that 
with  litharge,  metallic  lead  being  cheaper  and  producing  more 
sugar  of  lead  (entirely  free  from  copper)  than  litharge,  because 
103.5  Ibs.  of  pure  lead  yield  189.5  Ibs.  of  sugar  of  lead,  while 
the  same  quantity  is  only  obtained  from  111.5  Ibs.  of  pure  litharge. 
Furthermore,  commercial  lead  is  always  purer  than  litharge.  On 
the  other  hand,  this  process  has  the  disadvantage  of  a  consider- 
able quantity  of  acetic  acid  being  lost  by  evaporation  on  account 
of  it  having  to  pass  through  several  vessels.  The  manufacture 
of  sugar  of  lead  is  most  suitably  combined  with  that  of  white 
lead,  it  being  thus  possible  to  utilize  the  tailings,  etc.  to  greater 
advantage  than,  as  is  frequently  done,  by  melting  them  together 
and  remelting,  which  always  cause  considerable  loss. 

Sugar  of  lead  is  further  formed  by  boiling  lead  sulphate  with 
a  very  concentrated  solution  of  barium  acetate,  barium  sulphate 
(permanent  white)  being  thereby  precipitated.  For  100  parts  of 
lead  sulphate  84  parts  of  anhydrous  or  100  of  crystallized  barium 
acetate  are  required,  the  yield  being  125  parts  of  sugar  of  lead. 
Sulphate  of  lead  is  obtained  in  large  quantities  as  a  by-product 
in  the  preparation  of  aluminium  acetate. 

For  many  purposes  of  dyeing  and  printing  the  use  of  pure 
sugar  of  lead  is  not  necessary,  the  brown  acetate  of  lead  answer- 
ing all  requirements.  For  its  preparation  ground  litharge  is 
introduced  in  small  portions,  and  with  constant  stirring  into  dis- 
tilled pyroligneous  acid  in  a  vat  until  red  litmus  paper  is  colored 
blue,  and,  hence,  a  basic  salt  is  formed.  The  impurities  separat- 
ing on  the  surface  are  removed  and  the  clear  fluid  is  then  trans- 
ferred to  a  copper  pan  provided  with  strips  of  lead,  and  evaporated 
to  about  two-thirds  its  volume,  the  brown  smeary  substances 
rising  to  the  surface  during  evaporation  being  constantly  removed. 
By  again  diluting  and  slightly  acidulating  the  concentrated  fluid 
a  further  portion  of  the  foreign  substances  can  be  removed. 
Finally  evaporation  is  carried  to  the  crystallizing  point,  i.  e., 
until  a  few  drops  congeal  when  allowed  to  fall  upon  a  cold 
metal  plate.  An  addition  of  animal  charcoal  for  the  purpose  of 
discoloration  is  of  no  advantage  ;  the  coloration  is  not  completely 


ACETATES  AND  THEIR  MANUFACTURE.  293 

removed,,  and  the  little  effect  produced  is  attained  by  a  considerable 
loss  of  salt  which  is  absorbed  by  the  animal  charcoal. 

By  disturbing  crystallization  by  constant  stirring  during  cooling 
a  nearly  amorphous  mass  having  the  appearance  of  yellow  wax  is 
obtained,  which  is  much  liked  by  many  consumers.  The  product 
thus  obtained  is  not  always  a  neutral  salt,  but  sometimes  a  mix- 
ture of  neutral  and  basic  salt  (besides  empyreumatic  substances). 
After  cooling  it  must,  therefore,  be  quickly  and  well  packed  in 
order  to  protect  it  from  the  moisture  and  the  carbonic  acid  of  the 
air.  The  sugar  of  lead  solution  may,  however,  also  be  evapo- 
rated only  so  far  that  some  mother-lye  remains  after  cooling  ;  the 
crystallized  mass  is  then  allowed  to  stand  in  a  moderately  warm 
room  for  some  time.  In  consequence  of  capillarity  the  impurities, 
which  occur  chiefly  in  the  inother-lye,  gradually  rise  up  between 
the  crystals,  a  slight  coating  of  a  yellow,  or  brown,  smeary  sub- 
stance being  finally  formed  upon  the  mass  of  crystals  and  can 
be  readily  removed. 

The  linen  upon  which  the  crystals  are  dried  must  be  carefully 
protected  from  fire,  as  it  ignites  from  the  slightest  spark  and  burns 
like  tinder. 

If  the  hot  solution  be  set  aside  to  cool  rapidly,  the  sugar  of  lead 
crystallizes  in  clusters  of  fine  needles  ;  but  if  the  evaporation  be 
conducted  slowly  the  crystals  are  truncated  and  flattened,  quad- 
rangular and  hexahedral  prisms  derived  from  a  right  rhombic 
prism.  Acetate  of  lead  has  a  sweet  astringent  taste,  is  soluble  in 
1J  parts  of  water  and  in  8  parts  of  ordinary  alcohol.  The  crys- 
tals are  permanent  in  the  air,  but  are  apt  to  effloresce  and  become 
anhydrous  if  the  temperature  ranges  between  70°  and  100°  F. 

Acetate  of  lead  consists  of  — 

Plumbic  oxide     ........     58.9 

Anhydrous  acetic  acid          .         .         .         .         .         .  '   26.9 

Water          .........     14.2 

100.00 

Aqueous  solution  of  sugar  of  lead  slightly  reddens  litmus 
paper,  but  shows  an  alkaline  reaction  upon  turmeric,  browning 
this  coloring  substance. 

At  167°  F.  the  crystals  of  acetate  of  lead  melt,  and  but  slowly 
yield  up  their  water  ;  by  heating  the  entirely  dephlegmated  salt 


OF   TH2 

7BR 

V  C'jt  _     *>*     ^  W«  Ji 


294  VINEGAR,    CIDER,   AND   FRUIT- WINES. 

more  strongly  it  fuses  at  536°  F.  to  a  clear,  oil-like,  colorless 
fluid  and  decomposes  above  this  temperature,  evolving  all  the 
compounds  usually  obtained  in  the  destructive  distillation  of  the 
acetates  of  the  heavy  metals,  leaving  a  residue  of  metallic  lead  in 
a  very  minute  state  of  division  with  some  charcoal.  When  this 
distillation  is  conducted  in  a  glass  tube  closed  at  one  end  and 
having  the  other  drawn  out  for  convenience  of  sealing,  at  the  end 
of  the  operation,  the  well-known  lead  pyrophorus  is  made.  The 
particles  of  metallic  lead  are  so  small  that,  when  thrown  into  the 
air,  oxygen  molecules  come  into  such  intimate  contact  with  them 
that  ignition  is  effected  from  the  rapidity  with  which  lead  oxide 
is  formed. 

A  slight  decomposition  occurs  when  the  neutral  salt  is  exposed 
to  an  atmosphere  of  carbonic  acid,  carbonate  of  lead  being  formed  ; 
the  portion  of  acetic  acid  thus  liberated  protects  the  remainder 
from  further  change. 

Cold  solution  of  sugar  of  lead  is  not  immediately  changed  by 
ammonia  ;  by  adding,  however,  a  strong  excess,  sexbasic  acetate 
of  lead  is  gradually  separated ;  on  boiling  yellow-red  crystalline 
lead  oxide  is  precipitated. 

The  introduction  of  chlorine  gas  into  a  solution  of  sugar  of 
lead  produces  in  a  short  time  a  brown  precipitate  of  plumbic  di- 
oxide ;  bromine  acts  in  a  similar  manner,  but  on  account  of  its 
insolubility  iodine  produces  scarcely  any  effect. 

Solution  of  calcium  chloride  at  once  produces  a  yellow  pre- 
cipitate, which  gradually  becomes  brown. 

Sugar  of  lead  containing  considerable  copper  has  a  bluish  ap- 
pearance ;  if  the  content  of  copper  is  small,  it  is  recognized  by  the 
solution  acquiring  a  blue  coloration  with  ammonia,  or,  still  better, 
by  mixing  the  solution  of  sugar  of  lead  with  an  excess  of  solution 
of  Glauber's  salt  and  testing  the  filtrate  with  potassium  ferro- 
cyanide ;  a  dark  red  precipitate  indicates  copper. 

Sugar  of  lead,  as  well  as  the  basic  lead  salts  to  be  mentioned 
further  on,  possesses  poisonous  properties. 

Sugar  of  lead  is  chiefly  used  for  the  preparation  of  aluminium 
acetate  as  well  as  of  other  acetates.  Large  quantities  of  it  are 
also  consumed  in  the  manufacture  of  colors,  for  instance,  of  neu- 
tral and  basic  lead  chromate,  chrome  yellow,  chrome  orange,  and 


ACETATES   AND   THEIR   MANUFACTURE.  295 

chrome  red.  Upon  the  cloth-fibre  (especially  wool)  chrome  yel- 
low and  chrome  orange  are  produced  by  means  of  sugar  of  lead, 
especially  with  the  brown  variety ;  the  latter  product  being  also 
very  suitable  for  the  production  of  the  so-called  chrome  green, 
which  is  obtained  by  the  joint  precipitation  of  chrome  yellow  and 
Berlin  blue. 

Xeutral  lead  acetate  gives  crystallizable  double  salts  with 
potassium  acetate  and  sodium  acetate  as  well  as  with  lead  nitrate, 
lead  chloride,  lead  bromide,  etc. 

Basic  lead  acetates. — Several  of  these  compounds  are  known. 
Those  with  2  and  3  equivalents  of  plumbic  oxide  to  1  equivalent 
of  acetic  acid  are  soluble  in  water,  show  a  strong  alkaline  reac- 
tion, and  with  carbonic  acid  the  solutions  yield  at  once  and  in 
every  degree  of  concentration  abundant  precipitates  of  white  lead 
(basic  carbonate  of  lead),  while,  when  the  operation  is  at  a  suita- 
ble moment  interrupted,  neutral  salt  remains  in  solution.  In  this 
manner  white  lead  is  manufactured  according  to  the  so-called 
French  method  (of  Thenard  and  Hoard)  at  Clichy  and  other 
places  in  France  as  well  as  in  different  German  factories.  If, 
however,  the  introduction  of  carbonic  acid  be  continued  until  no 
more  precipitate  is  formed,  a  part  of  the  lead  of  the  neutral  salt 
is  also  precipitated  as  carbonate,  which,  however,  is  neutral,  and 
an  acid  solution  remains  behind. 

The  soluble  salt  known  as  lead-vinegar  or  extract  of  lead  is  pre- 
pared by  digesting  2  parts  of  sugar  of  lead  dissolved  in  5  of 
water  with  1  of  finely  powdered  litharge.  The  proportional 
quantities  of  sugar  of  lead,  litharge,  and  water  prescribed  by  the 
Pharmacopoeias  of  the  different  countries  vary  very  much,  and, 
consequently,  also,  the  compositions  and  specific  gravities  (from 
1.20  to  1.36)  of  the  solutions  of  lead  prepared  in  accordance  witli 
them.  The  litharge  dissolves  very  readily  in  the  sugar  of  lead 
solution,  in  fact  with  greater  ease  than  in  acetic  acid,  and  espe- 
cially with  greater  rapidity  if  the  sugar  of  lead  solution  be  heated 
in  a  silver  dish  to  the  boiling  point  and  the  litharge  gradually 
introduced.  For  the  manufacture  on  a  large  scale,  the  sugar  of 
lead  solution  and  the  litharge  may  be  brought  into  a  barrel  revolv- 
ing around  its  axis.  If  the  operation  is  to  be  conducted  at  the 
ordinary  temperature,  the  barrel  must  be  closed  to  prevent  the 


296  VINEGAR,   CIDER,   AND   FRUIT-WINES. 

access  of  the  carbonic  acid  of  the  air.  Very  remarkable  is  the 
behavior  of  the  tribasic  acetate  towards  hydrogen  dioxide;  plum- 
bic dioxide  is  first  formed,  but  in  a  short  time  this  exerts  a  de- 
composing influence  upon  the  hydrogen  dioxide  which  may  be 
present  in  excess,  so  that  both  dioxides  now  lose  one-half  of  their 
oxygen,  which  evolves  in  the  form  of  gas,  and  water  and  plumbic 
oxide  are  formed.*  Now,  as  freshly  precipitated  plumbic  di- 
oxide possesses  the  further  property  of  decomposing  solution  of 
potassium  iodide,  Schoenbein  recommends  tribasic  acetate  of  lead 
together  with  paper  coated  with  paste  prepared  with  potassium 
iodide  as  the  most  sensitive  re-agent  for  hydrogen  dioxide. 

Lead  sesquibasic  acetate,  triphimbic  tetracetate. — This  salt  is  ob- 
tained by  heating  the  diacetate  until  it  becomes  a  white,  porous 
mass;  this  is  re-dissolved  in  water  and  set  aside  to  crystallize. 
Sesquibasic  acetate  is  soluble  in  both  water  and  alcohol ;  its  solu- 
tions are  alkaline. 

Tribasic  acetate  of  lead  is  prepared  by  digesting  189.5  Ibs.  of 
sugar  of  lead  with  223  Ibs.  of  plumbic  oxide  (pure)  or  3  Ibs.  of 
sugar  of  lead  to  4  Ibs.  of  litharge ;  or,  according  to  Payen,  into 
100  volumes  of  boiling  waiter  are  poured  100  volumes  of  aqueous 
solution  of  sugar  of  lead  saturated  at  86°  F.,  and  afterwards  a 
mixture  of  pure  water  at  140°  F.,  with  20  volumes  of  ammonia 
liquor  free  from  carbonate.  The  vessel  is  then  immediately 
closed,  and  in  a  short  time  an  abundance  of  the  tribasic  acetate 
crystallizes  out.  This  salt  presents  itself  under  the  form  of  long 
needles.  It  is  insoluble  in  alcohol,  very  soluble  in  water,  its  so- 
lution being  alkaline.  Tribasic  acetate  is  the  most  stable  of  all 
the  subacetates  of  lead.  It  takes  a  leading  part  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  white-lead  by  the  Clichy  process ;  it  is,  in  point  of  fact,  a 
solution  of  this  salt  which  is  decomposed  by  the  carbonic  acid, 
and  gives  rise  to  the  carbonate  of  lead,  being  itself  at  the  same 
time  converted  into  lead  diacetate.  In  the  Dutch  process  the 
formation  of  lead  carbonate  is,  according  to  Pelouze,  also  due  to 
the  formation  of  tribasic  acetate  on  the  surface  of  the  sheets  of 
lead,  which  is,  in  its  turn,  decomposed  by  the  carbonic  acid. 

Sexbasic  acetate  of  lead. — This  body  is  prepared  by  digesting 

*  Schoenbein  in  Wagner's  Jahresbericht,  1862. 


ACETATES   AND   THEIR   MANUFACTURE.  297 

any  of  the  preceding  salts  with  lead  oxide.  It  is  a  white  powder 
slightly  soluble  in  boiling  water,  from  which  it  crystallizes  out  in 
silky  needles  which  consist  of  2  equivalents  of  the  salt  combined 
with  three  equivalents  of  water. 

Uranium  acetate. — With  uranous  oxide  acetic  acid  combines 
to  a  dark  green  crystallizable  salt,  and  with  uranic  oxide  to  a 
yellow  basic  salt,  which,  combined  with  water,  appears  in  two 
different  forms  of  crystals.  It  is  remarkable  for  giving,  with 
many  other  acetates,  well  crystallizing  salts,  of  a  beautiful  color 
and  partly  showing  magnificent  dichroism  (Wertheim  and 
Weselsky). 

Tin  acetate  is  prepared  by  dissolving  stannous  hydrate*  in 
heated  strong  acetic  acid,  or  by  mixing  stannous  chloride  (SnCl2) 
with  acetate  of  sodium  or  calcium.  It  forms  small  colorless 
needles  which  have  a  strong  metallic  taste  and  readily  decompose 
in  the  air.  The  salt  is  sometimes  used  as  a  mordant  in  calico 
printing. 

Bismuth  acetate. — Bismuth  nitrate  prepared  by  gradually  in- 
troducing pulverized  metallic  bismuth  into  cold  dilute  nitric  acid 
is  mixed  with  pure  concentrated  sugar  of  lead  solution.  The 
salt  separates  in  small,  colorless  needles. 

Mercurous  acetate  can  be  prepared  by  dissolving  pure  mercu- 
rous  oxide  or  its  carbonate  in  acetic  acid,  or  by  mingling  hot  solu- 
tions of  mercurous  nitrate  and  acetate  of  sodium  or  of  potas- 
sium. The  pure  mercurons  carbonate  is  heated  to  boiling  with  8 
parts  of  water,  and  concentrated  acetic  acid  added  until  all  is  dis- 
solved ;  the  hot,  filtered  liquid  free  from  oxide  being  allowed  to 
cool.  Or,  acidulated  nitrate  is  diluted  with  6  to  8  parts  of  water, 
heated  and  mixed  with  one  equivalent  of  acetate  of  sodium  or 
potassium,  dissolved  in  8  parts  of  hot  water  containing  a  little 
free  acid  and  cooled.  The  salt,  when  separated,  is  washed  with 
a  little  cold  water,  dried  in  the  dark  at  a  gentle  heat,  and  kept 
from  the  light  in  covered  bottles. 

It  crystallizes  in  fine,  white,  silvery  scales,  flexible  and  unctuous 
to  the  touch,  with  a  nauseous  metallic  taste,  easily  decomposed  by 

*  The  hydrate  is  obtained  by  precipitating  stannous  chloride  with  soda  lye 
and  washing  the  precipitate. 


298  VINEGAR,   CIDER,   AND    FRUIT-WINES. 

light ;  it  is  dissolved  with  difficulty  in  cold  water,  requiring  33 
parts  at  the  ordinary  temperature.  It  is  partially  decomposed 
by  boiling  water  into  acid  and  basic  salts  of  both  oxides  and  me- 
tallic mercury.  It  is  used  in  pharmacy. 

Mercuric  acetate. — Dissolve  red  oxide  of  mercury  in  concen- 
trated acetic  acid  with  a  gentle  heat  and  evaporate  to  dry  ness,  or 
partially  to  crystallization,  or  by  spontaneous  evaporation.  By 
the  first  process,  it  is  a  white  saline  mass  ;  by  the  second,  it  forms 
crystalline  scales ;  and  by  the  third,  four-sided  plates,  which  are 
partly  transparent,  partly  pearly  and  translucent ;  anhydrous,  of 
a  nauseous  metallic  taste,  fusible  without  decomposition,  solidify- 
ing to  a  granular  mass,  but  its  point  of  decomposition  is  near 
that  of  fusion.  It  dissolves  in  4  parts  of  water  at  50°  F.,  in  2.75 
at  66.2°  F.,  and  in  1  at  212°  F.,  but  by  boiling  it  is  partly  de- 
composed, with  separation  of  red  oxide ;  even  in  the  air  its  solu- 
tion suffers  the  latter  change  and  contains  a  basic  salt.  With 
free  acetic  acid  it  is  not  decomposed ;  1 00  parts  of  alcohol  dis- 
solve 5-|  of  this  salt,  and  this  solution  behaves  like  the  aqueous 
one.  It  generally  contains,  except  when  carefully  crystallized, 
some  mercurous  oxide. 

Silver  acetate. — This  salt  is  obtained  by  precipitating  a  concen- 
trated solution  of  silver  nitrate  with  a  concentrated  solution  of 
sodium  acetate.  It  forms  a  white  crystalline  precipitate.  It  dis- 
solves in  about  100  parts  of  cold,  but  readily  in  hot  water,  and 
only  sparingly  in  alcohol.  On  exposure  to  light  it  acquires  a 
dark  color,  being  partially  reduced.  On  heating,  it  yields  acetic 
acid,  metallic  silver  remaining  behind. 

If  the  salt  be  heated  with  bisulphide  of  carbon  in  a  closed 
glass  tube  to  329°  F.,  silver  sulphide,  carbonic  acid,  and  anhy- 
drous acetic  acid  are  formed  (Broughton). 

On  treating  the  dry  salt  with  iodine,  lively  decomposition  takes 
place,  whereby  silver  iodide,  some  metallic  silver,  and  coal  re- 
main behind,  while  methyl  oxide,  acetic  acid,  acetylene,  and  hy- 
drogpn  appear.  With  iodine  a  solution  of  this  salt  yields  acetic 
acid,  silver  iodide,  and  iodate  of  silver  (Birnbaum). 


PART  II. 

MANUFACTURE  OF  CIDERS,  FRUIT-WINES,  ETC. 
CHAPTER  XXIV. 

INTRODUCTION. 

THE  term  wine  in  general  is  applied  to  alcoholic  fluids  which 
are  formed  by  the  fermentation  of  fruit  juices  and  serve  as  beve- 
rages. According  to  this  definition,  there  may  be  actually  as  many 
kinds  of  wine  as  there  are  fruits  whose  juices,  in  consequence  of 
their  content  of  sugar,  are  capable  of  vinous  fermentation  ;  and,  in 
fact,  besides  the  apple  and  pear,  there  are  many  other  fruits 
which  are  likewise  applicable  to  wine-making.  Among  these 
may  be  named  currants,  gooseberries,  mulberries,  elderberries, 
cherries,  oranges,  dates,  pine-apples,  raspberries,  strawberries, 
etc.  But,  in  order  to  make  the  product  from  such  fruits  re- 
semble the  standard  wine  made  from  grapes,  various  ingredients 
have  to  be  added,  as,  for  instance,  an  acid,  spices,  coloring,  and 
an  astringent,  to  replace  the  extractive  matter.  The  acid  gene- 
rally used  is  the  tartaric,  and  elderberry  and  whortleberry  juice  are 
used  for  the  coloring,  while  the  water  used  in  the  manufacture  of 
wine  should  in  all  cases  be  pure  and  soft. 

Ripening  of  fruits. — In  order  to  form  a  clear  idea  of  the  pro- 
cesses which  take  place  during  the  growth,  ripening,  and  final 
decomposition  of  a  fruit,  it  is  necessary  to  refer  to  the  constitu- 
ents which  are  already  found  in  an  unripe  fruit  at  its  first  appear- 
ance. 

Besides  water,  the  quantity  of  which  varies  between  90  and  45 
per  cent.,  fruits  contain  partly  soluble  and  partly  insoluble  sub- 
stances. The  juice  obtained  by  pressure  contains  the  soluble  con- 
stituents, such  as  sugar,  gum,  tannin,  acids,  salts,  etc.,  while  the 


300  VINEGAR,   CIDER,   AND   FRUIT-WINES. 

remaining  insoluble  portion  consists  chiefly  of  cellulose,  starch, 
a  gum-like  body,  a  few  inorganic  substances,  and,  further,  the 
characteristic  constituent  of  unripe  fruits,  to  which  the  term  pec- 
to#e  has  been  applied.  It  forms  the  initial  point  for  the  phe- 
nomena observed  during  the  growth  and  ripening  of  fruits,  and, 
therefore,  requires  a  somewhat  closer  examination. 

In  regard  to  its  behavior,  pectose  approaches  cellulose  and 
starch  ;  it  is  chiefly  found  in  the  pulp  of  unripe  fruits,  but  also 
in  certain  roots,  especially  in  carrots,  beets,  and  others.  It  is 
insoluble  in  water,  spirits  of  wine,  and  ether,  but  during  the 
ripening  of  the  fruit  it  undergoes  a  change,  induced  by  the  acids 
and  heat,  and  is  converted  into  pectine,  which  is  readily  soluble 
in  water.  To  pectose  are  due  the  hardness  of  unripe  fruits  and 
also  the  property  of  many  fruits  and  roots  of  boiling  hard  in 
water  containing  lime,  the  pectose  combining  with  the  lime.  • 

The  formation  of  pectine  commences  as  soon  as  the  fruits  are 
exposed  to  the  action  of  heat,  and  then  depends  on  the  influence 
of  the  vegetable  acid  present  upon  he  pectose.  To  be  convinced 
of  this  it  suffices  to  express  the  pulp  of  an  unripe  apple.  The 
juice  thus  obtained  contains  scarcely  a  trace  of  pectine,  but,  by 
boiling  it  for  a  few  minutes  with  the  pulp  of  the  fruit,  the  fluid, 
in  consequence  of  the  formation  of  pectine,  acquires  a  viscous 
quality,  like  the  juice  obtained  from  ripe  fruits. 

Pectine,  nearly  pure,  is  white,  soluble  in  water,  non-crystal- 
lizable,  and  without  effect  upon  vegetable  colors.  From  its 
dilute  solution  it  is  separated  as  a  jelly  by  alcohol,  and  from  its 
more  concentrated  solution,  in  long  threads.  Brought  into  con- 
tact with  alkalies  or  alkaline  earths,  pectine  is  transformed  into 
pectic  acid.  Under  the  influence  of  a  peculiar  ferment  called 
pectase,  which  will  be  described  later  on,  pectine  is  transformed 
into  pectosic  acid,  and  by  dilute  acids  into  metapectic  acid. 

By  boiling  a  solution  of  pectine  in  water  for  a  few  hours,  it 
partially  loses  its  viscous  condition  and  separates  a  substance 
called  parapectine,  which  shows  the  same  behavior  as  pectine, 
except  that  it  is  not  precipitated  by  neutral  lead  acetate.  When 
treated  with  dilute  acids  the  parapectine  is  transformed  into  meta- 
pectine,  which  might  be  called  metapectous  acid,  as  it  shows  a 
decidedly  acid  reaction  and  colors  litmus  paper  strongly  red. 


RIPENING   OF    FRUITS.  301 

Metapectine  is  soluble  in  water,  non-crystallizable,  and,  like 
pectine  and  parapectine,  insoluble  in  alcohol,  which  precipitates 
it  from  its  solutions  in  the  form  of  a  jelly.  On  being  brought 
into  contact  with  bases  it  is  also  transformed  into  pectic  acid.  It 
differs  from  pectine  and  parapectine  in  that  the  solution  is  pre- 
cipitated by  barium  chloride. 

Pectase,  the  peculiar  ferment  previously  referred  to,  is  similar 
in  its  mode  of  action  to  diastase  and  emulsin.  It  can  be  obtained 
by  precipitating  the  juice  of  young  carrots  with  alcohol,  whereby 
the  pectose,  which  was  at  first  soluble  in  water,  becomes  insoluble, 
without,  however,  losing  its  effect  upon  the  pectous  substances. 

By  adding  pectase  to  a  solution  of  pectine,  the  latter  is  imme- 
diately converted  into  a  jelly-like  body,  insoluble  in  water.  This 
phenomenon  is  the  pectous  fermentation,  which  may  be  compared 
with  lactic  acid  fermentation.  It  is  not  accompanied  by  an  evo- 
lution of  gas,  and  may  take  place  with  the  air  excluded,  a  tem- 
perature of  86°  F.  being  most  favorable  for  its  progress. 

Pectase  is  an  amorphous  substance ;  by  allowing  it  to  stand  in 
contact  with  water  for  a  few  days,  it  decomposes,  becomes  cov- 
ered with  mold-formations,  and  loses  its  action  as  a  ferment,  the 
latter  being  also  destroyed  by  continued  boiling.  In  the  vege- 
table organism  it  occurs  in  a  soluble  as  well  as  insoluble  state. 

Roots  such  as  carrots,  beets,  etc.  contain  soluble  pectase,  and 
their  juice  added  to  a  fluid  containing  pectine  in  solution  imme- 
diately induces  pectous  fermentation,  while  the  juice  of  apples 
and  other  acid  fruits  produces  no  effect  upon  pectine,  the  latter 
being  present  in  them  in  the  modified  insoluble  form  and  accom- 
panying the  insoluble  portion  of  the  pulp.  On  adding  the  pulp 
of  unripe  apples  to  a  pectine  solution  it  gelatinizes  in  a  short 
time  in  consequence  of  the  formation  of  pectosic  and  pectine 
acids. 

Pectosic  acid  is  the  result  of  the  first  effect  of  the  pectase  upon 
pectine ;  it  is,  however,  also  formed  by  bringing  dilute  solutions  of 
potash,  soda,  ammonia,  or  alkaline  carbonates  in  contact  with 
pectine.  In  all  these  cases  salts  are  formed  which,  when  treated 
with  acids,  yield  pectosic  acid.  The  latter  is  jelly-like  and  dissolves 
with  difficulty  in  water ;  in  the  presence  of  acids  it  is  entirely 


302  VINEGAR,   CIDER,   AND    FRUIT-WINES. 

insoluble ;  by  long  boiling  in  water,  by  pectase,  or  by  an  excess 
of  alcohol  it  is  soon  transformed  into  pectic  acid. 

By  allowing  pectase  to  act  for  some  time  upon  pectine,  pectic 
acid  is  formed ;  the  same  conversion  taking  place  almost  instan- 
taneously by  dilute  solution  of  potash,  soda,  ammonia,  alkaline 
carbonates,  as  well  as  by  barium,  lime,  and  strontium  water.  Its 
formation  in  the  above-described  manner  is  preceded  by  that  of 
pectosic  acid,  which,  as  previously  mentioned,  is  converted  by  the 
same  agents  into  pectic  acid. 

Pectic  acid  is  insoluble  in  cold,  and  scarcely  soluble  in  hot, 
water;  by  boiling  it,  however,  for  a  certain  time  in  water,  and 
constantly  replacing  the  water  lost  by  evaporation,  it  disappears 
entirely,  and  is  converted  into  a  new  acid  soluble  in  water.  By 
nitric  acid  it  is  transformed  into  oxalic  acid  and  muric  acid ; 
alkalies  decompose  it  very  rapidly,  the  final  result  being  metapec- 
tic  acid,  which  is  soluble  in  water,  but  non-crystallizable ;  on 
boiling  in  hot  water,  the  solution  forms  a  jelly  after  cooling. 

Pectic  acid  further  possesses  the  special  property  of  dissolving 
in  a  large  number  of  alkaline  salts  and  forming  with  them  true 
double  salts  which  always  show  a  decidedly  acid  reaction,  dissolve 
in  water,  and  on  cooling  form  consistent  jellies. 

By  boiling  for  a  few  hours  a  solution  of  a  pectous  salt,  the  latter 
is  transformed  into  a  parapectous  salt  which,  when  decomposed 
by  a  dilute  acid,  yields  parapectic  acid.  It  is  non-crystallizable, 
shows  a  strong  acid  reaction,  and  forms  soluble  salts  with  alkalies  ; 
it  is  precipitated  by  barium  water  in  excess. 

Metapectic  acid  is  formed  in  various  ways,  among  others  by 
leaving  an  aqueous  solution  of  parapectic  acid  to  itself  for  some 
time,  but  also  by  the  action  of  the  lime  contained  in  the  cell-tissue 
of  roots  and  fruits  upon  pectose.  It  is  insoluble  in  water,  does  not 
crystallize,  and  gives  soluble  salts  with  all  bases.  With  an  excess 
of  bases  the  salts  acquire  a  yellow  coloration ;  they  are  precipi- 
tated by  basic  lead  acetate. 

What  has  been  said  in  the  preceding  may  be  briefly  condensed 
as  follows : — 

1.  By  the  influence  of  heat  upon  pectose  pectine  is  formed. 

2.  Pectine  is  transformed  into  parapectine  by  boiling  its  aque- 
ous solution  for  several  hours. 


RIPENING   OF    FRUITS.  303 

3.  Parapecti rie/when  treated  at  a  boiling  heat  with  dilute  acids, 
is  converted  into  metapectine. 

4.  Pectase  converts  pectine  into  pectic  acid. 

5.  By  long-continued   action  of  pectase  upon  pectine  pectic 
acid  is  formed. 

6.  Pectic  acid  is  transformed  by  boiling  water  into  parapectic 
acid. 

7.  An  aqueous  solution  of  parapectic  acid  is  quickly  converted 
into  metapectic  acid. 

All  these  bodies  are  derived  from  pectose,  which  through  all 
these  transformations  has  not  even  suffered  a  change  in  the  pro- 
portion of  weight  of  its  constituents  (carbon,  hydrogen,  and 
oxygen ) ;  hence  all  have  the  same  qualitative  and  quantitative 
composition.  This  may,  perhaps,  sound  odd,  but  chemistry  pre- 
sents numerous  analogies  for  such  cases,  and  hence  the  term 
isomeric  has  been  applied  to  bodies  which  with  the  same  quanti- 
tative composition  exhibit  very  different  chemical  properties. 

The  changes  pectose  undergoes  by  the  influence  of  heat,  a 
peculiar  ferment,  acids  and  alkalies,  and  the  resulting  combina- 
tions mentioned  above,  have  of  course  been  artificially  effected  by 
chemical  means.  They  resemble,  however,  so  closely  the  state  of 
fruits  in  the  course  of  their  growth  and  ripening,  and  the  influ- 
ences and  conditions  to  which  fruits  are  exposed  in  nature  are 
sufficiently  similar  to  those  artificially  induced,  that  their  action 
may  be  reasonably  supposed  to  be  the  same.  We  know  from 
daily  experience  that  heat  promotes  the  development  and  ripening 
of  fruit ;  fruits  contain  pectose  and  acids,  and  alkalies  or  bases  are 
conducted  to  them  from  the  soil ;  hence  in  fruit  in  a  normal  state 
of  development  none  of  the  chemical  agents  are  wanting  which  the 
chemist  uses  for  the  production  of  derivatives  of  pectose. 

If  the  transformation  of  substances  under  the  influence  of  others 
be  considered  as  dependent  on  chemical  processes,  the  develop- 
ment of  a  fruit  from  its  first  formation  to  complete  ripeness,  and 
even  to  its  decomposition,  rotting,  and  putrefaction,  is  a  chemical 
process  in  the  widest  sense  of  the  word.  This  is  evident,  not 
only  from  what  has  been  said  in  the  preceding,  but  has  also 
been  plainly  shown  by  special  chemical  researches  into  the  changes 


304  VINEGAR,    CIDER,    AND    FRUIT- WINES. 

fruits  undergo  during  their  development  and  perfection.     The 
results  of  these  researches  are  briefly  as  follows  : — 

1.  The  quantity  of  water  contained  in  the  pulp  of  a  fruit  is  con- 
siderable ;  it  varies  between  45  and  90  per  cent.     In  many  fruits 
the  content  of  water  remains  unchanged   during  the    different 
periods  of  ripening,  but,  as  a  rule,  it  is  somewhat  greater  in  the 
commencement. 

2.  Fruits  of  the  same  kind  examined  at  the  same  season  of  the 
year  alwavs  contain  the  same  quantity  of  water  ;  the  same  holding 
good  as  regards  the  various  parts  of  the  pulp  of  a  fruit. 

3.  The  solid  constituents  in  the  pulp  of  fruits  amount  to   be- 
tween 10  and   25  per  cent.;  they  consist  of  soluble  substances, 
which  dissolved  in  the  water  form  the  juice  of  the  fruits ;  and  of 
insoluble  bodies  which  compose  the  membranes  of  the  cells. 

4.  The  quantity  of  soluble  substances  always  increases  with 
increasing  ripeness,  while  the  weight  of  the  insoluble  decreases  ; 
hence  it  may  be  said  the  soluble  substances  contained  in  the  juice 
of  a  fruit  are  formed  at  the  expense  of  the  insoluble  portion  of 
the  pulp.     The  bodies  which  become  soluble  are  starch,  pectose, 
and  a  gum-like  substance  capable  of  being  converted  into  gum. 

On  this  modification  of  the  solid  portion  of  the  pulp  of  a  fruit 
depend  also  the  changes  a  fruit  undergoes  in  regard  to  hard- 
ness and  transparency  during  ripening. 

According  to  the  mode  of  action  of  the  pectase  and  acids  upon 
the  pectose,  all  ripe  fruits  contain  pectine. 

5.  Various  acid  fruits,  such  as  plums,  cherries  etc.,  are  fre- 
quently observed  to  secrete  a  neutral  juice  which,  in  consequence 
of  the  evaporation  of  the  water,  leaves  a  gum-like  substance  upon 
the  exterior  of  the  fruit.     This  phenomenon  throws  some  light 
upon  the  separation  of  gum  as  it  appears  in  many  trees,  and  which, 
when  it  occurs  very  abundantly,  is  an  actual  disease. 

In  fruits  becoming  thus  covered  with  gum  a  transparent, 
neutral  substance  insoluble  in  water  occurs  stored  in  the  cells  of 
the  pulp.  Under  the  influence  of  nitrogenous  substances,  which 
act  as  a  ferment,  and  perhaps  also  of  acids,  this  gum-like  substance 
is  modified  and  transformed  into  actual  gum,  which  is  then  con- 
verted into  sugar  in  the  interior  of  the  pulp  of  the  fruit ;  an  ex- 


RIPENING   OF   FRUITS.  305 

cess  of  this  gum-like  substance  is  secreted  and  forms  a  firm 
coating  upon  the  exterior  of  the  fruit. 

6.  The  sugar  occurring  in  ripe  fruits  is  evidently  derived  from 
various  sources.     The  occurrence  of  a  large  quantity  of  starch  in 
many  unripe  fruits,  especially  in  apples,  and  its  complete  disap- 
pearance at  the  time  of  ripeness,  allow  of  no  other  explanation 
than  that  the  sugar  occurring  in  fruits  is  formed  by  the  conversion 
of  the  starch  under  the  influence  of  the  acids  present ;  other  in- 
different substances,  such  as  gum,  vegetable  mucus,  etc.,  undergo 
similar  transformations  and  yield  in  this  manner  a  certain  portion 
of  sugar.     Even  tannin,  which  occurs  in  all  unripe,  but  not  in 
ripe  fruits,  can  be  changed  by  acids  and  ferments  so  as  to  form 
sugar. 

Thus  far  nothing  justifies  the  supposition  that  the  acids  in 
fruits,  such  as  tartaric,  citric,  malic  acids,  are  converted  into 
fruit-sugar.  To  entertain  such  an  opinion  it  would  have  to  be 
supposed  that  the  molecules  of  these  acids,  which  are  far  more 
simple  than  those  of  fruit-sugar,  become  more  complex  and  are 
converted  into  sugar ;  in  such  natural  transformations  the  reverse 
is,  however,  generally  the  case,  the  molecules  always  endeavoring 
to  become  the  more  simple  the  farther  they  withdraw  from  organ- 
ized structures. 

7.  It  has  been  attempted  to  explain  in  various  ways  the  very 
remarkable  phenomenon  of   the  gradual  disappearance  of  the 
acids  in  ripening  fruits.    It  might  not  be  impossible  that  the  acid 
of  a  fruit  is  neutralized  by  the  bases  conducted  to  it  through  the 
juice ;  or  that  it  is  covered  by  the  sugar  or  the  mucous  substances 
formed  in  the  juice ;  or,  finally,  that  it  disappears  at  the  moment 
of  ripeness  by  suffering  actual  combustion.     An  examination  of 
these  various  opinions  leads  to  the  conclusion  that  the  acid  is 
neither  neutralized  nor  covered  by  the  sugar  or  the  mucous  sub- 
stances, but  that  it  actually  undergoes  slow  combustion. 

During  development  and  ripening  a  fruit  passes  through  two 
different  stages  sharply  separated  from  each  other  by  definite 
chemical  phenomena.  In  the  first  stage,  which  may  be  desig- 
nated as  that  of  growth,  whilst  the  fruit  remains  green,  its  rela- 
tion to  the  atmosphere  appears  the  same  as  that  of  leaves,  for  it 
absorbs  carbonic  acid  and  evolves  oxygen.  During  this  epoch  it 
20 


306  VINEGAR,   CIDER,   AND   FRUIT-WINES. 

increases  rapidly  in  size,  and  receives  through  the  stem  the  inor- 
ganic substances  indispensable  for  its  development,  and  water.  If, 
at  this  stage,  it  is  taken  from  the  tree,  it  soon  commences  to 
wither  and  decay.  But  in  the  second  period,  when  it  fairly 
begins  to  ripen,  its  green  color  is,  as  a  rule,  replaced  by  a  yellow, 
brown-red,  or  red.  Oxygen  is  now  absorbed  from  the  air  and 
carbonic  acid  is  evolved,  whilst  the  starch  and  cellulose  are  con- 
verted into  sugar  under  the  influence  of  the  vegetable  acids,  and 
the  fruit  becomes  sweet.  When  the  sugar  has  reached  the  maxi- 
mum the  ripening  is  completed ;  if  the  fruit  be  kept  longer,  the 
oxidation  takes  the  form  of  ordinary  decay. 


CHAPTER   XXV. 

FRUITS   AND   THEIR   COMPOSITION. 

FOR  the  preparation  of  fruit-wines,  not  only  the  fruits  culti- 
vated in  our  gardens  and  orchards  on  account  of  their  fine  flavor 
are  used,  but  sometimes  also  others  which  do  not  by  any  means 
possess  an  agreeable  taste,  and  whose  juices  after  fermentation 
yield  a  product  which  has  at  least  only  a  very  doubtful  claim  to 
the  name  of  "  wine."  The  utilization  of  such  material  for  wine- 
making  can  only  be  explained  by  special  fancy,  and  hence  here 
only  such  fruits  will  be  considered  as,  on  account  of  the  nature 
of  their  juices,  will  yield  with  rational  treatment  a  beverage  of 
a  sufficiently  agreeable  taste  to  be  liked. 

For  the  fabrication  of  fruit-wine,  sugar  not  only  by  itself  but 
also  in  its  proportion  to  the  free  acid  present,  is  undoubtedly  the 
most  important  constituent  of  the  fruit.  The  following  compila- 
tion from  Fresenius  gives  the  average  percentage  of  sugar  in 
different  varieties  of  fruit. 


FRUITS   AND   THEIR   COMPOSITION. 


307 


Peaches 
Apricots 
Plums  . 
Reine  Claudes 
Greengages  . 
Raspberries 
Blackberries 
Strawberries 
Whortleberries 


1.57  p.  c. 

Currants 

.     6.10  p.  c. 

1.80'    " 

German  prunes     . 

.     6.25     " 

2.12     " 

Gooseberries 

.     7.15     " 

3.12     " 

7  45     " 

3.58     " 

Apples 

.     8.37'   " 

4.00     " 

Sour  cherries 

.     8.77     " 

4.44    " 

Mulberries    . 

.     9.19     <• 

5.73     " 

Sweet  cherries 

.  10.79     " 

5.78     " 

Grapes 

.  14.93     " 

II.  Compilation  according  to  average  percentage  of  free  acid 
expressed  in  malic  acid. 


Pears    . 

Greengages  . 
Sweet  cherries 
Peaches 
Grapes 
Apples 

German  prunes 
Reine  Claudes 
Apricots 


0.07  p.  c. 

Blackberries 

0.58     " 

Sour  cherries 

0.62     " 

Plums 

0.67     " 

Whortleberries 

0.74     " 

Strawberries 

0.75     " 

Gooseberries 

0.89     " 

Raspberries 

0.91     " 

Mulberries    . 

1.09     " 

Currants 

1.19  p.  c. 

1.28  " 

1.30  " 

1.34  " 

1.37  " 

1.45  " 

1.48  " 

1.86  " 

2.04  " 


III.  Compilation  according  to  the  proportion  between  acid, 
sugar,  pectine,  gum,  etc. 


Pectine, 

Acid. 

Sugar. 

gum,  etc 

Plums 

.        I 

1.63 

3.14 

Apricots 

.       1 

1.65 

6.35 

Peaches 

.       1 

2.34 

11.94 

Raspberries 

.       1 

2.70 

0.96 

Currants 

.       1 

3.00 

0.07 

Reine  Claudes 

.       1 

3.43 

11.83 

Blackberries 

.       1 

3.73 

1.21 

Whortleberries    . 

.       1 

4.31 

0.41 

Strawberries 

.       1 

4.37 

0.08 

Gooseberries 

.       1 

4.93 

0.76 

.       1 

4.94 

1.10 

Greengages 

.       1 

6.20 

9.92 

Sour  cherries 

.       1 

6.85 

1.43 

German  prunes   . 

.       1 

7.03 

4.35 

Sweet  cherries 

.       1 

11.16 

5.60 

Grapes 

.       1 

20.18 

2.03 

Pears 

1 

94.60 

44.40 

TV.  Compilation  according  to  the  proportion  between  water, 
soluble  and  insoluble  substances. 


308 


VINEGAR,    CIDER,    AND   FRUIT-WISES. 


Raspberries 

Blackberries 

Strawberries 

Plums 

Currants 

Whortleberries 

Gooseberries 

Greengages 

Apricots 

Pears    . 

Peaches 

German  prunes 

Sour  cherries 

Mulberries    . 

Apples 

Reine  Claudes 

Sweet  cherries 

Grapes 


Composition  of  the  juice, 
in  100  parts,  without  the 

insoluble  substances. 

Soluble 

Insoluble 

Soluble 

Water. 

substances. 

substances. 

Water. 

substances. 

100 

9.12 

6.88 

91.64 

8.36 

100 

9.26 

6.46 

91.53 

8.47 

100 

3.39 

5.15 

91.42 

8.58 

100 

9.94 

0.87 

91.13 

8.87 

100 

11.00 

6.62 

90.09 

9.91 

100 

12.05 

16.91 

89.25 

10.75 

100 

1218 

3.57 

89.14 

10.86' 

100 

13.04 

1.53 

88.46 

11.54 

100 

13.31 

2.07 

88.25 

11.75 

100 

14.25 

5.54 

87.52 

12.48 

100 

14.64 

2.10 

87.23 

12.77 

100 

15.32 

3.15 

86.71 

13.29 

100 

16.48 

1.31 

85.85 

14.15 

100 

16.57 

1.47 

85.79 

14.21 

100 

16.89 

3.61 

85.46 

14.54 

100 

18.52 

1.22 

84.37 

15.63 

100 

18.61 

1.53 

84.30 

15.70 

100 

22.81 

5.81 

81.42 

18.58 

V.  Composition  of  the  juice  according  to  its  content  of  sugar, 
peetine,  etc.,  in  100  parts. 


Peetine, 

Peetine 

Sugar, 

etc., 

Sugar, 

etc., 

p.  c. 

p.  c.  v 

p.  c. 

p.  c. 

Peaches 

.     1.99 

10.05 

German  prunes 

.     7.56 

4.70 

Reine  Claudes 

.     2.04 

6.98 

Gooseberries 

.     8.00 

1.24 

Apricots 

.     2.13 

8.19 

Whortleberries 

.     8.12 

0.77 

Plums  . 

.     2.80 

5.40 

Pears    . 

.     8.43 

4.02 

Greengages  . 

.     4.18 

6.45 

Apples 

.     9.14 

4.59 

Raspberries 

.     4.84 

1.73 

Mulberries    . 

.  10.00 

2.22 

Blackberries 

.     5.32 

1.72 

Sour  cherries 

.  10.44 

2.17 

Strawberries 

.     6.89 

0.13 

Sweet  cherries 

.  15.30 

2.43 

Currants 

.     7.30 

0.16 

Grapes 

.  16.15 

2.07 

VI.  Content  of  free  acid  in  100  parts  of  juice. 


Pears    . 
Reine  Claudes 
Greengages  . 
Grapes 
Apples 
Peaches 
Sweet  cherries 
German  prunes 
Apricots 


0.09  p.  c. 

Blackberries 

0.59     " 

Sour  cherries 

0.67     " 

Strawberries 

0.80    " 

Gooseberries 

0.82     " 

Plums 

0.85     " 

Raspberries  . 

0.88     " 

Whortleberries 

1.08     " 

Mulberries    . 

1.29     " 

Currants 

1.42  p.  c. 
1.52  " 
1.57  " 
1.63  " 
1.72  " 
1.80  " 
1.88  " 
2.02  " 

2.43  " 


FRUITS   AND   THEIR   COMPOSITION.  309 

Tables  V.  and  VI.  represent  the  proportion  in  which  the  solu- 
ble constituents  of  the  fruits  are  found  in  the  juice  or  must  ob- 
tained from  them  ;  in  the  practical  execution  of  the  fabrication  of 
fruit  wines  we  will  have  occasion  to  refer  to  these  tables. 

For  the  preparation  of  wine  only  the  soluble  substances,  which 
pass  into  the  must  and  from  which  the  wine  is  formed,  are  chiefly 
of  interest,  and  it  will  be  necessary  to  consider  them  somewhat 
more  closely. 

Grape-sugar  or  glucose. — This  sugar  is  widely  diffused  through- 
out the  vegetable  kingdom,  occurring  in  most  kinds  of  sweet  fruits, 
in  honey,  etc.  Artificially  it  can  be  readily  obtained  by  heating  a 
solution  of  cane  sugar  with  a  dilute  acid ;  it  is  also  formed  by 
dissolving  cane  sugar  in  wine.  On  a  large  scale  it  is  prepared 
by  boiling  starch  with  very  dilute  sulphuric  acid  for  several 
hours,  neutralizing  the  liquid  with  chalk  and  evaporating  the 
solution. 

Grape-sugar  is  much  less  sweet  than  cane-sugar ;  in  alcohol  of 
90  per  Tr.  it  is  sparingly  soluble ;  in  hot  water  it  dissolves  in 
every  proportion;  of  cold  water  it  requires,  however,  about  1J 
parts  for  solution.  It  crystallizes  from  an  aqueous  solution  with 
one  molecule  of  water  in  cauliflower-like  masses  and  from  hot 
alcohol  in  warty,  anhydrous  needles.  A  solution  of  crystallized 
grape-sugar  turns  the  plane  of  polarization  to  the  right,  but  one 
of  anhydrous  grape-sugar  to  the  left. 

Acids. — The  acid  reaction  of  fruit  juices  is  partly  due  to 
malic  acid  and  partly  to  citric  acid,  and  also,  as  in  the  case  of 
grapes,  to  tartaric  acid.  As  a  rule  all  these  acids  are  present ;  in 
currants  citric  acid  predominates;  in  apples,  etc.,  malic  acid. 

The  presence  of  potassium  in  grape-must  gives  rise  to  the  for- 
mation of  potassium  bitartrate  or  crude  tartar.  Tartar  requires 
for  its  solution  240  parts  of  cold  water;  in  alcoholic  fluids  it  is  less 
soluble,  and  hence  it  is  found  as  a  crystalline  deposit  in  wine 
casks.  Fruit-musts  contain  no  tartaric  acid,  and,  consequently, 
the  wines  prepared  from  them  cannot  deposit  tartar.  The  salts 
formed  by  malic  and  citric  acids  with  potassium  being  readily 
soluble  and  even  deliquescent  form  no  deposit  in  the  wine. 

Albuminous  substances. — By  this  general  term  are  designated 
several  nitrogenous  vegetable  substances  which  have  the  same 


310  VINEGAR,   CIDER,    AND   FRUIT-WINES. 

composition  ;  they  are  vegetable  albumen,  fibrin,  and  glue.  The 
quantities  of  these  substances  in  the  different  musts  are,  on  the 
one  hand,  too  small,  and  the  difficulty  of  accurately  distinguishing 
them  from  each  other  is,  on  the  other,  so  great  that  it  is  scarcely 
possible  to  definitely  determine  the  kind  present  in  the  fruit  juice  ; 
most  likely  all  three  are  present  at  the  same  time. 

For  the  preparation  of  wine  these  bodies  are  of  importance ; 
they  furnish  the  material  for  the  development  of  the  yeast-fungus 
during  fermentation. 

Pedous  substances. — In  the  paragraph  "  ripening  of  fruits,"  the 
pectous  substances  have  been  sufficiently  discussed;  they  are 
scarcely  ever  wanting  in  a  fruit  juice,  but  being  insoluble  in  alco- 
holic fluids  they  are  entirely  separated  with  the  yeast,  and  hence 
are  not  present  in  fruit-wines. 

Gum  and  vegetable  mucilage. — Our  knowledge  as  regards  gum 
is  still  limited.  Gum-arabic,  which  may  be  studied  as  a  repre- 
sentative of  this  class,  is  an  exudation  from  certain  species  of 
acacia  and  consists  essentially  of  arabin.  It  is  generally  supposed 
to  be  soluble  in  water,  but  on  endeavoring  to  filter  a  somewhat 
concentrated  solution  not  a  drop  will  be  found  to  run  off,  and  the 
little  which  possibly  may  pass  through  the  filter  is  by  no  means 
clear. 

Closely  related  to  gum-arabic  is  bassorine,  the  gum  which 
exudes  from  the  cherry,  plum,  almond,  and  apricot  trees.  It 
does  not  give  a  slime  with  water,  but  merely  swells  up  to  a 
gelatinous  mass. 

Wine  brought  in  contact  with  the  smallest  quantity  of  gum- 
arabic  remains  permanently  turbid  and  cannot  be  clarified  by 
filtering  or  long  standing.  From  this  behavior  of  gum  it  may 
be  concluded  that,  though  it  may  occur  dissolved  in  the  must,  it  is 
not  present  in  the  wine. 

The  various  kinds  of  vegetable  mucilage  have  also  not  yet 
been  accurately  examined;  it  is  only  known  that  there  are 
quite  a  number  of  them.  It  is,  however,  likely  that  only  a 
few  of  them  are  actually  soluble  in  water.  Though  the  muci- 
lage ^df  certain  seeds,  such  as  linseed  and  quince-seed,  may  be 
considered  as  readily  soluble  in  water  as  gum-arabic,  and  perhaps 
more  so,  because  it  is  a  perfectly  clear  fluid  drawing  threads, 


FRUITS   AND  THEIR  COMPOSITION.  311 

yet  on  filtering  it  will  be  found  that  what  passes  through  above 
contains  scarcely  a  trace  of  a  mucilaginous  substance.  Hence, 
it  is  doubtful  whether  mucilages  exist  which  are  actually  solu- 
ble in  water,  and  whether  they  occur  in  wine.  Artificial  dex- 
trin is,  however,  an  exception,  as  it  forms  with  water  a  perfectly 
clear  fluid,  which  can  be  filtered.  We  will  here  call  attention  to 
an  easy  method  of  distinguishing  between  solution  of  gum- 
arabic  and  of  dextrin  ;  the  first  cannot  be  heated,  even  for  a 
minute,  over  an  open  fire  without  scorching,  while  the  latter  can 
be  completely  boiled  down  without  fear  of  burning. 

Tannin. — Several  kinds  of  tannin  occur  in  plants,  which  can;  how- 
ever, be  finally  reduced  to  two  modifications,  viz  :  pathological  and 
physiological  tannin.  The  first  occurs  in  large  quantity  in  nut- 
galls,  especially  in  the  Chinese  variety,  also  in  sumach  (the  twigs 
of  Rhus  Coraria)  and  in  many  other  plants.  Pathological  tan- 
nin is  characterized  by  splitting  under  the  influence  of  dilute 
acids  as  well  as  by  fermentation  into  gallic  acid  and  grape-sugar. 
Furthermore,  it  completely  precipitates  glue  from  its  solutions,  but 
is  not  suitable  for  the  conversion  of  the  animal  skin  into  techni- 
cally serviceable  leather  which  will  withstand  putrefaction.  Be- 
sides, only  the  gallic  acid  obtained  from  pathological  tannin 
yields  pyrogallic  acid  by  dry  distillation. 

Physiological  tannin  is  chiefly  found  in  materials  used  for  tan- 
ning ;  it  cannot  be  split  by  dilute  acids  or  fermentation,  does  not 
yield  gallic  acid,  and  the  product  of  dry  distillation  is  not  pyro- 
gallic acid,  but  pyrocatechin  or  oxyphenic  acid ;  it  converts  the 
animal  skin  into  perfect  leather. 

There  can  be  but  little  doubt  that  physiological  tannin  is  the 
variety  found  in  fruits  or  fruit-juices.  Generally  speaking,  a 
content  of  tannin  in  wine  is  not  exactly  a  desirable  feature,  as 
it  is  readily  decomposed.  It  can  only  have  an  advantageous 
effect  when  the  wine  contains  an  excess  of  albuminous  substances 
which  the  tannin  removes  by  entering  into  insoluble  combinations 
with  them.  This  may  be  the  reason  why  wine  containing  tannin 
is  considered  more  durable,  because  if  it  contained  albuminous  sub- 
stances in  large  quantity  it  would  be  still  more  readily  subjected 
to  changes.  Under  such  circumstances  a  small  addition  of  tan- 
nin to  the  wine  may  be  of  advantage,  though  instead  of  tannin  it 


312  VINEGAR,   CIDER,   AND   FRUIT-WINES. 

is  advisable  to  use  an  alcoholic  extract  of  grape-stones,  which  are 
uncommonly  rich  in  tannin. 

Inorganic  constituents. — The  inorganic  constituents  of  the  dif- 
ferent varieties  of  fruit  are  very  likely  the  same,  namely,  potash, 
lime,  magnesia,  sulphuric  and  phosphoric  acids;  they  vary  only 
in  the  proportions  towards  one  another  and  in  the  total  quantity 
of  all  the  substances.  Moreover,  their  quantity  is  too  small  to 
exert  an  influence  upon  the  quantity  of  the  wine  to  be  produced, 
being  of  interest  only  in  regard  to  the  exhaustion  of  the  soil. 
Though  lime  and  sulphuric  acid  in  sufficient  quantity  occur 
almost  everywhere  in  the  soil,  this  cannot  be  said  of  potash  and 
phosphoric  acid.  Unfortunately  there  are  no  accurate  statements 
regarding  the  amount  of  these  substances  which  is  withdrawn 
from  the  soil  by  the  crop  of  one  year,  but  there  can  be  no  doubt 
that  it  is  very  large,  and  that  consequently  fruit-trees  from  time  to 
time  require  a  certain  amount  of  manure  in  order  to  return  to  the 
soil  what  has  been  taken  from  it. 

Fermentation. — Fermentation  is  a  chemical  process  which  is 
always  caused  by  the  presence  of  a  ferment  or  a  substance  in  a 
peculiar  state  of  decomposition.  Although  to  induce  fermentation 
the  presence  of  a  ferment  is  necessary,  it  does  not  take  part  in  the 
decomposition  of  the  fermenting  substance.  The  products  of  fer- 
mentation vary  according  to  the  nature  of  the  fermenting  body, 
as  well  as  according  to  the  nature  of  the  ferment.  Each  peculiar 
kind  of  fermentation  requires  a  certain  temperature,  and  it  is 
nearly  always  accompanied  by  the  development  of  certain  living 
bodies  (infusoria  or  fungi). 

When  yeast  is  added  to  a  dilute  solution  of  dextrose  or  another 
glucose,  vinous  fermentation  speedily  sets  in;  whilst  a  solution  of 
cane-sugar  undergoes  fermentation  but  slowly,  the  cause  being 
that  this  sugar  must  first  be  converted  into  inverted  sugar  before 
fermentation  can  commence.  Vinous  fermentation  proceeds  most 
rapidly  at  77°  to  86°  F.,  and  does  not  take  place  below  32°  or 
above  95°  F.  The  presence  of  a  large  quantity  of  acids  or  alkalies 
prevents  fermentation,  while  if  the  liquid  has  a  faint  acid  reaction, 
fermentation  proceeds  best. 

The  yeast  which  is  formed  in  the  fermentation  of  the  juice  of 
grape  and  other  kinds  of  fruit  is  produced  from  soluble  albuminous 


FRUITS   AND   THEIR   COMPOSITION.  313 

bodies  contained  in  fruit.  It  consists  of  one  of  the  lowest  members 
of  the  vegetable  kingdom  (Torula  cerevisice),  and  under  the  micro- 
scope is  seen  to  be  made  up  of  little  oval  transparent  globules, 
having  a  diameter  of  not  more  than  0.1  millimetre  and  often 
adhering  in  clusters  and  strings.  They  are  propagated  by  bud- 
ding, and  die  as  soon  as  they  have  reached  their  highest  state 
of  development.  In  contact  with  air  and  water  yeast  soon  un- 
dergoes putrefaction. 

The  chief  products  of  vinous  fermentation  are  alcohol  and  car- 
bon dioxide ;  a  small  quantity  of  sugar  is  at  the  same  time  con- 
verted into  other  products,  about  2.5  per  cent,  being  transformed 
into  glycerin  and  0.6  to  0.7  per  cent,  into  succinic  acid.  A 
further  portion  of  the  sugar,  about  one  per  cent.,  is  assimilated  in 
the  form  of  cellulose  by  the  yeast  and  separated.  By  the  simul- 
taneous formation  of  these  different  secondary  products  about 
5.5  to  6.5  per  cent,  of  sugar  is  lost  in  the  formation  of  alcohol. 
As  they  are  not  always  formed  in  equally  large  quantity  no  con- 
clusion can  be  arrived  at  from  the  content  of  sugar  in  the  must  as 
to  the  quantity  of  alcohol  corresponding  to  theory  in  the  finished 
wine ;  it  is,  as  a  rule,  supposed  that  the  sugar  yields  one:half  its 
weight  of  alcohol,  which  is  sufficiently  correct  for  all  practical  pur- 
poses. 

Absolute  alcohol,  L  e.,  alcohol  entirely  free  from  water,  is  a  very 
mobile  fluid,  clear  as  water  and  almost  odorless ;  it  boils  at  173°  F., 
and  when  it  is  cooled  down  to  148°  F.  it  becomes  viscid,  but 
does  not  solidify.  Its  specific  gravity  at  32°  F.  is  0.80625,  and 
at  59°  F.  0.79367.  It  is  very  inflammable,  and  burns  with  a 
blue,  non-luminous  flame.  It  absorbs  moisture  with  great  avidity, 
and  is  miscible  with  water  in  all  proportions,  the  mixture  evolv- 
ing heat  and  undergoing  contraction. 

The  methods  for  determining  the  content  of  alcohol  in  a  fluid 
have  already  been  given  on  p.  198. 

Succinic  acid. — No  accurate  researches  have  as  yet  been  made 
in  regard  to  the  quantity  of  this  acid  in  wine,  its  influence  upon 
the  quality  of  the  wine,  and  the  conditions  under  which  more  or 
less  of  it  is  formed  during  fermentation.  According  to  Pasteur, 
the  more  succinic  acid  is  formed  the  slower  fermentation  pro- 
gresses; the  weaker  the  development  of  yeast  and  the  less  nour- 


314  VINEGAR,   CIDER,   AND   FRUIT- WINES. 

ishment  offered  to  the  latter.     In  acid  fluid  more  succinic  acid  is 
formed  than  in  neutral. 

Succinic  acid  is  quite  readily  soluble  in  a  mixture  of  alcohol 
and  water,  and  consequently  also  in  wine ;  its  taste  is  not  very  sour, 
but  disagreeable,  and  adheres  for  some  time  to  the  tongue ;  hence 
its  presence  can  scarcely  be  expected  to  give  an  agreeable  taste  to 
the  wine. 

Glycerin. — Glycerin  being  found  in  grape-wines,  in  which  it  is 
formed  from  the  sugar  by  fermentation,  there  can  scarcely  be  any 
doubt  of  its  formation  under  the  same  conditions  in  fruit-wines. 
According  to  Pasteur,  the  quantity  of  glycerin  in  wine  is  in  a 
definite  proportion  to  the  succinic  acid  formed,  and,  hence,  more 
glycerin  would  be  produced  with  slow  fermentation  and  in  an  acid 
fluid.  In  red  wines  Pasteur  found  4  to  7  per  cent,  of  glycerin. 

Pure  glycerin  is  a  colorless,  very  viscid  liquid  having  a  specific 
gravity  of  1.27.  It  can  be  mixed  with  water  and  alcohol  in  all 
proportions  and  possesses  a  very  sweet  taste.  It  is  very  likely 
that  the  mild  sweet  taste  of  many  ripe  wines  is  due  to  a  certain 
content  of  glycerin. 

A  solution  of  7  parts  of  glycerin  in  1000  of  water  (the  pro- 
portion in  which  Pasteur  found  glycerin  in  wine)  does  not  possess 
a  sweet  taste  and  differs  from  water  only  in  being  more  insipid. 
By  adding  to  such  a  solution  100  parts  of  alcohol  the  mixture 
shows  a  taste  different  from  that  of  alcohol  alone  diluted  in  the 
same  proportion,  the  predominant  taste  of  the  latter  being  de- 
creased by  the  glycerin  and  that  of  the  mixture  becoming  milder. 
Hence  a  certain  importance  has  to  be  ascribed  to  the  glycerin. 

Carbonic  acid. — The  greater  portion  of  the  carbonic  acid  formed 
by  fermentation  escapes  as  a  gaseous  body  during  the  process,  but 
a  certain  portion  remains  dissolved  in  the  wine  as  long  as  the  tem- 
perature of  the  latter  is  not  raised.  The  temperature  of  cellars 
generally  increases,  however,  towards  the  end  of  spring,  which 
causes  anew  a  slight  development  of  carbonic  acid  in  consequence 
of  which  the  wine  again  becomes  turbid.  The  presence  of  car- 
bonic acid  is  of  advantage  only  in  young  wine,  as  it  protects  it 
from  the  direct  action  of  the  air  by  forming  a  layer  upon  the 
surface;  in  old  wines  it  conceals,  however,  the  fine  aroma  and 
taste,  making  them  appear  younger  than  they  actually  are. 


FRUITS   AND  THEIR  COMPOSITION.  315 

Though  it  cannot  be  said  that  carbonic  acid  plays  an  essential 
part  in  the  preparation  of  wine,  it  deserves  attention  on  account 
of  its  deleterious  influence  upon  the  workmen.  To  avoid  all 
injurious  consequences  provision  should  be  made  for  a  thorough 
ventilation  of  the  cellar  by  means  of  windows  and  doors.  If 
fermentation  is  carried  on  in  barrels,  the  carbonic  acid  developed 
in  a  number  of  them  should  be  conducted  by  means  of  tubes 
secured  air-tight  in  the  bungs  to  a  zinc-pipe  which  passes  through 
a  suitable  aperture  into  the  open  air. 

How  large  the  quantity  of  carbonic  acid  is  which  is  developed 
during  the  fermentation  of  a  barrel  holding  1200  liters  of  must 
at  10  per  cent.  =  240  kilogrammes  of  sugar  is  shown  by  the 
following  calculation  :  180  grammes  of  grape-sugar  yield  88 
grammes  of  carbonic  acid  at  32°  F.  1  gramme  of  carbonic  acid 
occupies  a  volume  of  0.50848  liter,  which,  with  a  cellar  tempera- 
ture of  50°  F.,  corresponds  to  0.527294  liter.  Hence  we  have 
for  the  calculation  of  the  total  quantity  of  carbonic  acid  developed 
88  x  0.527294  X  4000*  or  ^  much  ag 


o 

the  contents  of  52  barrels  containing  each  1200  liters. 

Alkaloid  in  wine.  —  It  has  been  frequently  asserted  that  an  alka- 
loid exists  in  young  wine,  which  not  being  contained  in  the  must 
or  the  yeast  must  have  been  formed  from  the  nitrogenous  consti- 
tuents of  the  yeast  or  of  the  fluid  during  fermentation.  It  has 
not  been  found  in  old  wine,  and  it  is  therefore  concluded  that  it 
in  time  decomposes.  Should  this  observation  be  confirmed,  it 
would  explain  the  difference  in  the  effects  of  the  very  intoxicating 
young  wines  and  of  old  wines. 


reduced 


316  VINEGAR,   CIDER,   AND   FRUIT- WINES. 


CHAPTER   XXVI. 

PRACTICE   OF   THE   PREPARATION   OF   CIDER   AND    FRUIT- 
WINES. 

THE  first  step  in  the  preparation  of  fruit-wines  is  the  gaining 
of  the  juice  or  must  from  the  fruit.  Stamping  or  grinding  and 
subsequent  expressing  of  the  paste  thus  formed  by  means  of  strong 
pressure  suffice  in  most  cases  for  berries  and  other  small  fruits. 
With  apples,  etc.,  this  manner  of  reduction  is  not  only  difficult, 
but  also  connected  with  considerable  loss  caused  by  larger  and 
smaller  pieces  jumping  from  the  trough. 

The  earliest  appliance  known  was  simply  a  trough  in  which 
the  apples  were  reduced  to  an  imperfect  pomace  by  rolling  them 
with  a  heavy  cylindrical  stone  or  by  pounding  them  as  in  a 
mortar.  An  improvement  was  the  production  of  the  English 
cider-mill.  This  consisted  of  a  pair  of  coarsely  corrugated  iron 
cylinders  from  which  the  apples  fell  to  a  second  pair  close  together 
and  finer  in  their  surfaces  and  passed  through  finely  mashed  to 
the  pomace  vessel  underneath.  In  1852,  Mr.  W.  O.  Hickock,  of 
Harrisburg,  Pa.,  invented  a  portable  cider-mill  which  consisted  of 
a  pair  of  small  horizontal  cylinders  armed  with  small  spirally 
arranged  teeth  or  spikes  revolving  close  together,  one  at  a  higher 
velocity  than  the  other.  The  apples  were  first  broken  by  the 
action  of  a  coarsely-fluted  roller  which  revolved  against  a  table 
under  the  hopper,  and  after  passing  between  the  cylinders  the 
apples  were  not  only  bruised  but  also  grated  into  the  required 
pomace.  This  machine  was  capable  of  grinding  100  bushels  of 
apples  per  day.  Numerous  modifications  have  been  made  in  the 
plan  of  Mr.  Hickock's  mill,  some  being  simply  spiked  cylinders 
against  which  the  apples  were  carried  and  held  till  grated  by 
reciprocating  plungers. 

Our  limits  will  not  permit  us  to  notice  all  the  various  styles 
of  portable  mills  before  the  public  or  the  multitude  of  graters  or 


PREPARATION   OF   CIDER   AND    FRUIT-WINES. 


317 


apple-grinders,  many  of  which  possess  excellent  points  and  are 
worthy  of  commendation.  An  excellent  apparatus  for  crushing 
apples  is  the  crushing-mill  shown  in  Figs.  66  and  67,  B  C  (Fig. 
67)  representing  the  cylinders  provided  with  teeth.  A  hopper,  A, 
receives  the  apples,  which  pass  between  the  cylinders,  where  they 
are  crushed  and  fall  into  the  receiver  F  placed  underneath.  Two 


Fig.  66. 


Fig.  67. 


men  operate  this  mill  by  means  of  cranks.  Larger  and  stronger 
mills  are  used  when  the  quality  of  apples  seems  to  require  them, 
and  in  that  case  horse-power  is  applied. 

Fig.  68  shows  Davis's  star  apple-grinder,  several  sizes  of  which 
are  manufactured  by  the  G.  H.  Bushnell  Co.,  of  Thompsonville, 
Conn.  The  grinder  shown  in  the  illustration  is  a  heavy  machine 
weighing  340  Ibs.  The  cylinder  is  12  inches  in  diameter  and  12 
inches  long,  is  turned  and  carefully  balanced,  has  grooves  planed 
in  to  receive  the  knives,  six  in  number,  which  are  finely  made 
and  tempered.  Each  knife  furnished  is  made  of  steel-plated  iron, 
the  steel  being  very  thin  and  having  a  back  of  iron ;  there  is  no 
danger  of  breaking,  although  made  very  hard.  The  end  of  the 
cylinder  is  banded  with  wrought-iron  bands  and  the  knives  are 
set  with  set-screws.  The  shaft  is  of  steel  and  runs  in  anti-friction 
metal.  The  concaves  are  hung  at  top,  so  they  can  swing  back  at  the 
bottom  to  allow  stone,  pieces  of  iron,  etc.  to  pass  through  without 
injuring  the  knives.  The  concaves  are  held  to  their  place  by  a 


318  VINEGAR,   CIDER,    AND    FRUIT-WINES. 

holt  which  allows  the  concave  to  be  set  as  close  as  desired  to  the 
cylinder,  and  is  held  to  its  place  by  coil-springs  which  will  give 
enough  to  allow  stones  to  pass  and  yet  hold  rigid  in  grinding 
even  frozen  apples.  The  frame  is  one  casting,  and  as  the  concaves 
are  fast  to  the  frame  they  cannot  get  out  of  line  or  be  displaced,  as 
is  the  case  when  the  concave  is  fast  to  the  hopper.  The  hopper 


Fig.  68. 


can  be  readily  removed  to  adjust  knives  and  all  parts  are  adjust- 
able and  easy  to  get  at.  This  machine  can  be  gauged  to  grind 
from  200  to  400  bushels  per  hour.  Power  required  to  grind  six 
bushels  per  minute  about  six  horse-power  or  about  as  many  horse- 
power as  desired  to  grind  bushels  per  minute. 

Presses. — For  obtaining  the  juice  from  berries,  etc.  a  press  is 
generally  not  required,  or  at  least  only  a  slight  pressure ;  the 
greater  portion  of  it  runs  out  from  the  must  by  placing  the  latter 
upon  a  cloth  spread  over  a  perforated  bottom  in  a  vat.  The  juice 
retained  by  the  lees,  which  is,  as  a  rule,  very  sour  and  has  to  be 
diluted  with  water,  can  be  extracted  with  the  latter  more  completely 
than  is  possible  with  the  strongest  press. 

For  obtaining  the  juice  from  apple  pomace,  etc.  a  good  press 
is,  however,  an  important  auxiliary.  Before  the  introduction  of 
screws  the  method  of  extracting  the  juice  of  the  apple  was  by 
the  use  of  heavy  weights,  wedges,  and  leverage.  Until  within  a 
late  period  a  large  wooden  screw  was  used  and  is  even  nowT 
employed  in  some  sections  of  the  country.  Of  these  screws  two 


PREPARATION   OF   CIDER   AND   FRUIT-WINES. 


319 


Fig.  69. 


and  frequently  three  and  four,  set  in  a  strong  frame-work  of 
double  timbers,  were  found  no  more  than  sufficient  to  separate  the 
cider  from  the  pomace.  In  order  to  operate  these  screws  a  long 
heavy  wooden  lever  became  necessary,  which  required  the  united 
services,  of  four  or  five  men  to  handle,  and  not  ^infrequently  the 
strength  of  a  yoke  of  oxen  was  called  into  requisition  before  the 
work  could  be  accomplished.  An  improvement  upon  the  wooden 
screw  was  made  by  the  substitution  of  the  iron  screw  and  iron 
nut.  But  the  objectionable  feature 
of  having  to  handle  heavy  and 
cumbersome  levers  still  remained, 
making  labor  irksome  and  ex- 
pensive. In  modern  presses  this 
difficulty  has  been  entirely  over- 
come, and  the  juice  is  extracted 
from  the  pomace  with  great  ease 
and  completeness. 

Of  the  many  presses  before  the 
public  we  illustrate  a  hand-press 
and  a  power-press  manufactured 
by  the  G.  H.  Bushnell  Co.,  of 
Thompsonville,  Conn.,  the  same 
concern  furnishing  presses  of  all 
sizes  between  these  two.  Fig.  69 

shows  the  "  Farmer's  cider-press."  It  is  7  feet  1  inch  high  with 
a  width  between  the  rods  of  3  feet  If  inches.  It  will  hold  15  to 
16  bushels  of  apples  at  a  pressing  and  is  especially  designed  for 
individual  use.  It  is  also  admirably  adapted  for  squeezing  the 
juice  from  small  fruits,  berries,  etc. 

Fig.  70  shows  the  "  Extra  power  cider-press,"  with  revolving 
platform.  It  is  13  feet  4  inches  high,  6  feet  4  inches  wide  be- 
tween the  rods,  and  has  a  platform  13  feet  3  inches  long.  It 
gives  a  pressure  of  250  tons.  The  press  is  always  loaded  in  one 
place,  and  consequently  the  grater  can  be  located  immediately 
over  the  middle  of  the  cheese,  avoiding  the  necessity  of  convey- 
ing the  pomace  from  one  end  of  the  press  to  the  other.  This 
press  can  easily  make  a  pressing  of  12  barrels  of  cider  each  hour. 


320  VINEGAR,   CIDER,    AND   FRUIT-WINES. 

Fig.  71  shows  the  revolving  platform  belonging  to  the  above 
press,  for  which  the  manufacturers  claim  the  following  ad  van- 
Fig.  70. 


tages  :  1.  Both  ends  of  the  platform  are  loaded  and  unloaded  in 
the  same  place.  2.  It  is  so  geared  that  one  man  can  easily  and 
quickly  revolve  it.  3.  The  grinder  can  be  directly  over  the 
centre  of  the  cheese,  thus  avoiding  all  the  labor  of  shovelling  the 
pomace.  4.  The  pomace  being  dropped  in  the  centre  of  the 
cheese,  it  is  an  easy  matter  to  spread  it  with  equal  density  over 
the  entire  surface,  thus  building  a  cheese  that  is  not  liable  to  tilt 
or  slide.  The  cider  runs  into  a  copper  basin  in  the  centre  of  the 
platform  between  the  two  cheeses.  The  basin  is  so  arranged  that 
it  receives  the  cider  while  the  platform  is  being  revolved  as  well 
as  while  the  press  is  working. 


PREPARATION   OF   CIDER   AND    FRUIT-WINES.  321 

A  is  the  copper  basin  to  receive  the  cider  from  platforms,  and 
has  an  outlet  through  the  bottom,  about  6  inches  in  diameter, 
for  the  cider  to  pass  off  into  the  tank  below.  B  is  a  copper  tube 


encasing  the  rods.  (7,  (7,  C,  C  are  four  posts  fastened  to  the  plat- 
form to  hold  guide-pieces  for  racks.  D,  D  are  rack  guides. 

Ferguson's  improved  racks. — The  single  racks  are  made  of  some 
light  and  tough  wood — bass-wood  or  spruce  seems  best — cut  into 
strips  about  \  x  J  inch  and  placed  about  \  inch  apart,  with  four? 
five,  or  more  elm  strips,  2  inches  wide  and  about  f  inch  thick, 
placed  across  and  nailed  to  the  narrow  slats.  The  2-inch  slats 
extend  beyond  the  narrow  ones  on  each  side  about  4  inches. 
This  is  to  support  the  wings,  which  are  fastened  to  the  rack  by 
3  or  more  bronze  hinges.  These  wings,  with  the  aid  of  2  re- 
taining bars,  make  the  box  to  form  the  pomace  in.  The  slats 
are  rounded  on  the  edges  so  as  not  to  injure  the  press-cloth. 
Steel  wire  nails  or  wire  staples  are  used  of  sufficient  length  to 
clinch. 

Double  racks  are  made  by  using  slats  j^-x-J-  inch.  The  slats 
on  one  side  are  laid  directly  across  the  slats  on  the  other  side. 
.Four  wide  slats  are  put  at  the  outer  edges,  then  these  are  all  fast- 
ened together  by  steel  wire  nails  or  staples.  These  racks  have 
the  advantage  of  having  an  even  surface  on  each  side.  The 
press-cloth  will  last  much  longer  than  when  used  on  single  racks, 
where  it  is  strained  over  4  to  9  elm  slats. 

To  lay  up  a  cheese  with  the  Ferguson  improved  rack,  com- 
mence on  the  platform  of  the  press  and  lay  a  rack ;  then  turn  up 
21 


322  VINEGAR,   CIDER,    AND   FRUIT-WINES. 

the  wings  on  each  side  of  the  rack  and  place  the  retaining  bars 
on  each  end,  with  the  hooks  on  the  outside  of  the  wings,  so  as  to 
hold  them  up.  Over  this  box  spread  the  cloth,  fill  the  box  evenly 
full  of  pomace,  then  turn  in  the  sides  and  ends  of  the  cloth  over 
the  pomace,  the  cloth  being  of  sufficient  size  to  cover  it.  The  re- 
taining bars  are  then  removed,  allowing  the  wings  to  fall  in 
place.  Another  rack  is  placed  on  the  cheese  just  made,  the  re- 
taining bars  placed  in  position  to  hold  up  the  wings,  another 
cloth  placed  on  the  box,  etc.,  and  this  operation  is  continued 
until  there  is  the  right  number  of  layers  in  the  press.  A  rack 
should  be  placed  on  the  top  of  the  last  layer.  A  guide  should  be 
used  in  laying  up  the  cheese,  so  as  to  bring  each  rack  directly 
above  the  other. 

Plain  racks. — These  are  made,  either  single  or  double,  of  slats 
of  the  same  description  and  dimensions  as  are  used  in  the  Fer- 
guson racks,  but  in  the  place  of  wings  and  retaining  bars,  a  form 
square  in  size  and  4  inches  deep  is  used  to  form  the  sides  of  a 
box  for  the  pomace.  In  laying  up  a  cheese  commence  by  placing 
a  rack  on  the  platform,  and  upon  this  place  the  form,  spread  a 
cloth  over  the  form  and  fill  even  up  with  pomace ;  then  fold  the 
ends  and  sides  of  the  cloth  over  on  to  the  pomace,  as  described 
with  the  other  style  of  rack,  and  remove  the  form.  Place  an- 
other rack  on  the  layer  just  formed,  and  put  the  form  on  that 
and  proceed  as  before  until  the  cheese  is  complete.  It  will  re- 
quire one  cloth  less  than  the  number  of  racks  used  for  a  cheese. 
Care  must  be  exercised  in  laying  a  cheese  to  have  the  racks  come 
evenly,  as  they  are  liable  to  tilt  if  they  overhang.  The  best  way 
to  avoid  the  liability  to  slide  or  tilt  is  to  lay  the  racks  alternately 
the  length  and  breadth  of  the  press. 

Fig.  72  shows  Willson's  telegraph  wine  and  cider  mill.  The 
upper  roller  is  furnished  with  sharp  projecting  ribs,  which  cut 
the  apples  into  pieces  sufficiently  small  to  be  readily  received  be- 
tween the  lower  rollers.  The  two  lower  crushing  rollers  are  cast 
with  ribs  and  grooves,  and  these  draw  in  the  pieces  prepared 
by  the  upper  roller,  and  by  this  means  the  fruit  is  thoroughly 
mashed  between  the  smooth  segments,  which  breaks  all  the  cells 
of  the  apples  and  makes  the  subsequent  labor  of  pressing  much 


PREPARATION   OF   CIDER   AND   FRUIT-WINES.  323 

easier  ;  and  should  the  pomace  be  allowed  to  stand  a  short  time  a 
large  portion  of  the  cider  will  run  off  without  pressing.  Both 
the  upper  and  lower  rollers  are  adjustable,  and  can  be  set  to  mash 
grapes  for  wine  without  breaking  the  seeds.  It  is  peculiarly 
adapted  to  grinding  the  wine  plant,  mashing  it  without  sepa- 

Fig.  72. 


rating  the  fibre.  The  hopper  is  adjustable,  and  can  be  removed 
in  an  instant  for  cleaning  the  mill.  The  follower  is  brought  up 
out  of  the  tub  by  simply  raising  the  screw.  Several  sizes  of  this 
mill  are  manufactured. 

In  the  equipment  of  a  first-class  modern  cider  mill  nothing  gives 
better  satisfaction  for  the  money  expended  than  an  apple  ele- 
vator. The  expense  is  a  small  matter  compared  with  the  con- 
venience of  having  the  mill  so  arranged  that  apples  may  be 
brought  from  any  part  by  a  perfect  working  elevator  and  carrier. 
Fig.  73  shows  a  section  of  an  elevator  manufactured  by  the  G. 
H.  Bushnell  Company,  of  Thompsonville,  Connecticut.  The 
chain  runs  over  and  is  operated  by  a  sprocket  gear  at  the  head 
with  fast  and  loose  pulleys.  The  scrapers  are  of  wood,  3  inches 


324  VINEGAR,   CIDER,    AND    FRUIT- WINES. 

wide  and  11 J  inches  long,  bolted  to  lugs  or  projections  on  the 
chain.     When  run  at  from  50  to  70  revolutions  per  minute  it 


Fig.  73. 


will  elevate  from  5  to  10  bushels  per  minute.     It  works  at  an 
inclination  or  carries  on  a  level. 

Testing  the  Must  as  to  its  Content  of  Acid  and  Sugar. 

With  the  exception  of  the  grape  but  few  varieties  of  fruit  con- 
tain acid  and  sugar  in  such  proportion  and  in  such  quantity 
(generally  too  much  acid  and  too  little  sugar)  as  that  the  must 
obtained  from  them  will  yield,  when  subjected  to  fermentation,  a 
drinkable  and  durable  wine.  Wine  whose  content  of  acid  ex- 
ceeds 1  per  cent,  is  too  sour  to  the  taste,  and  one  containing  less 
than  5  per  cent,  of  alcohol  cannot  be  kept  for  a  long  time.  Now 
as  all  fruit  wines  may  be  called  artificial  wines,  and  a  natural 
product  has  consequently  to  be  improved  in  order  to  make  it 
more  agreeable  and  wholesome,  it  is  necessary  to  find  ways  and 
means  by  which  the  object  can  be  accomplished  in  a  manner 
most  conformable  to  nature.  For  this  purpose  a  knowledge  of 
the  content  of  acid  and  sugar  in  the  fruit-must  is  required. 

To  find  the  quantity  of  acid,  compound  a  determined  quantity, 
about  50  cubic  centimetres,  of  must  with  about  5  grammes  of 


PREPARATION   OF   CIDER   AND    FRUIT-WINES.  325 

purified  animal  charcoal,*  boil  the  mixture  about  five  minutes, 
and  after  cooling  replace  the  exact  quantity  of  water  lost  by 
evaporation.  After  shaking  bring  the  whole  upon  a  coarse 
paper,  filter  in  a  glass  funnel,  and  let  it  run  off.  Of  the  clear 
and  generally  colorless  filtrate  bring  6.7  cubic  centimetres  into  a 
small  beaker,  add  sufficient  distilled  water  to  form  a  layer  of 
fluid  2  to  3  centimetres  deep,  and  color  red  with  5  to  10  drops  of 
litmus  tincture.  While  holding  the  beaker  in  the  left  hand  and 
constantly  moving  it  slowly  in  a  horizontal  direction  alloAV  to 
run  or  drop  in  from  a  pipette  graduated  in  ^  cubic  centimetres 
and  filled  to  the  O  mark,  decinormal  liquid  ammonia  until 
the  last  drop  no  longer  changes  the  color  of  the  fluid  and  the 
place  where  the  drop  falls  appears  as  if  made  clear  by  a  drop  of 
water.  Now  prevent  a  further  flow  of  the  ammonia  by  closing 
the  pipette  with  the  index  finger  of  the  right  hand,  and  read  off 
the  quantity  of  ammonia  consumed.  The  must  examined  con- 
tains as  many  thousandths  of  malic  acid  as  cubic  centimetres  of 
liquid  ammonia  were  required  to  color  the  fluid  blue. 

Now  if  the  examination  shows  that  a  must  contains  more  than 
8  parts  of  acid  per  thousand,  it  is  evidently  too  sour  for  the 
preparation  of  a  palatable  and  wholesome  fruit  wine,  and  hence 
must  be  diluted  to  such  degree  as  to  reduce  the  content  of  acid  to 
6  or  at  the  utmost  to  8  parts  per  thousand.  The  calculation  for 
this  dilution  is  very  simple,  and  consists  in  multiplying  the  acid 
per  thousand  parts  present  by  100  and  dividing  with  the  content 
of  acid  the  wine  is  to  have,  the  entire  volume  containing  the  de- 
sired acid  per  thousand  being  thus  obtained.  If,  for  instance,  18 
parts  per  thousand  of  acid  have  been  found  in  currant-must  and 

-j  rj/"i    vIS 

the  wine  is  only  to  show  6J  parts  per  thousand,  then 

=  276.923,  in  round  numbers  ==  277,  i.  e.,  277  parts  by  measure 
of  water  have  to  be  added  to  every  100  parts  by  measure  of 
must. 

The  content  of  acid  in  the  must  thus  forms  the  initial  point 
for  the  dilution  in  order  to  obtain,  after  fermentation,  wine  with 

*  Bone-black  which  is  first  boiled  with  solution  of  sodium  carbonate  for 
some  time,  and  then  after  washing  and  extracting  with  hydrochloric  acid  is 
again  washed  and  dried. 


326  VINEGAR,    CIDER,    AND    FRUIT-WINES. 

a  determined  quantity  of  acid.  To  be  sure  the  content  of  acid  is 
sometimes  increased  by  fermentation,  some  succinic  acid,  as  pre- 
viously mentioned,  being  formed  and  perhaps  also  some  acetic 
acid  ;  sometimes,  however,  the  content  of  acid  decreases,  which  is 
very  likely  partially  due  to  the  water  used  for  the  dilution  of  the 
must  containing  earthy  carbonates  (lime,  magnesia).  It  is,  there- 
fore, best  not  to  have  too  much  acid  in  the  must,  since,  if  the 
finished  wine  should  be  lacking  in  acid,  it  can  be  readily  reme- 
died by  a  suitable  addition  of  tartaric  acid,  which  is,  however, 
not  the  case  when  it  contains  too  much  free  acid. 

The  determination  of  the  sugar  in  must  is  less  difficult  and  has 
already  been  fully  described  on  p.  197,  hence  there  remains  only 
the  question  how  much  sugar  has  to  be  added  to  the  must  in 
order  to  obtain  a  durable  wine. 

Numerous  analyses  have  shown  that  there  is  scarcely  any 
grape-wine  which  contains  less  than  7  per  cent,  by  weight  of 
alcohol,  while  in  more  generous  wines  the  content  rises  to  12  per 
cent,  and  more.  Fruit-wines  in  order  to  possess  good  keeping 
properties  should  never  show  less  than  7  per  cent,  by  weight  of 
alcohol,  but  there  is  no  reason  why  they  should  not  contain  as 
much  as  10  per  cent.  The  advantage  of  the  latter  content  is 
evident,  the  wines  being  thereby  almost  absolutely  protected  from 
spoiling  while  they  improve  in  aroma  and  taste,  the  various  kinds 
of  ether  being  only  formed  in  wine  rich  in  alcohol. 

The  manner  of  calculating  the  quantity  of  sugar  which  has  to 
be  added  to  the  must  to  give  the  wine  the  desired  content  of 
alcohol  will  be  best  shown  by  the  following  example  :  Suppose 
135  liters  of  must  which  contains  4  per  cent,  of  sugar  are  to  be 
changed  into  must  with  15  per  cent,  of  sugar. 

For  this  purpose  deduct  from  the  weight  of  the  must  (which 
for  the  sake  of  simplicity  we  will  consider  equal  to  its  volume)  the 
weight  of  the  sugar  contained  therein,  multiply  by  the  difference 
the  per  cent,  of  sugar  the  must  is  to  contain,  divide  the  product 
by  100  less  the  per  cent,  of  sugar  and  deduct  from  the  quotient 
the  per  cent,  of  sugar  already  present  in  the  must.  For  instance  : 
135  liters  of  must  with  4  per  cent,  of  sugar  are  to  be  changed 
into  must  with  15  per  cent,  of  sugar.  In  135  liters  are  contained 
5.4  kilogrammes  of  sugar,  135—5.4  =  129.6,  which  multiplied  by 


PREPARATION   OF   CIDER   AND   FRUIT-WIXES.  327 

15  «•  1944  ;  this  number  divided  by  100 — 15  =  85  gives  22.87. 
Deduct  from  this  5.4,  and  there  remain  17.47  kilogrammes  of 
sugar  which  have  to  be  added  to  the  must  to  give  it  15  per  cent, 
of  sugar. 

For  325  liters  of  must  with  3J  per  cent,  of  sugar  to  be  changed 
into  must  with  20  per  cent,  of  sugar  the  calculation  Avould  be  as 
follows  : — 

(325  —  11.375)20  ^  313.625  x  20  _ 
100—20  80 

o-|  q  #9  re 

±p  1  =  78.406  —  11.375  =  67.03  kilogrammes  of  sugar  to 

be  added. 

600  liters  of  must  with  6  per  cent,  of  sugar  are  to  be  changed 

into  must  with  22  per  cent,  of  sugar :   —:  X  U  —  36  =  117.4 

O\J 

kilogrammes  of  sugar. 

The  above  examples  will  suffice  to  enable  any  one  to  execute 
the  calculations  as  required. 

The  above  calculations  are  based  upon  pure,  anhydrous  grape 
sugar,  an  article  which  does  not  exist  in  commerce,  and  hence  has 
to  be  replaced  either  by  commercial  grape-sugar  (glucose)  or  cane- 
sugar.  Glucose,  however,  containing  as  a  rule  only  67  per  cent, 
of  anhydrous  grape-sugar,  1J  times  the  quantity  calculated  above 
must  be  used,  thus  in  the  last  example  176  kilogrammes  instead  of 
117.4.  With  cane-sugar  the  proportion  is  the  reverse,  171  parts 
by  weight  of  cane-sugar  being  equal  to  180  parts  by  weight  of 
anhydrous  grape-sugar ;  hence  the  per  cent,  of  anhydrous  grape- 
sugar  calculated  according  to  the  above  method  must  be  multi- 
plied by  the  fraction  -j-|-T  or  the  factor  0.95.  According  to  this, 
instead  of  the  117.4  kilogrammes  of  grape-sugar  in  the  last 
example,  111.73  kilogrammes  of  cane-sugar  will  have  to  be  used. 

Glucose. — Pure  glucose  being  identical  with  the  sugar  in  sweet 
fruits  its  use  for  sweetening  fruit-juices  intended  for  the  prepara- 
tion of  wine  is  perfectly  justifiable.  With  the  dispute  still  carried 
on  with  honest  weapons,  whether  it  is  permissible  to  assist  nature 
with  glucose  when  it  fails  to  succeed  in  its  labor  of  forming  sugar 
in  abundance,  we  have  here  nothing  to  do,  since  we  know  that 
the  principal  product — alcohol  or  spirits  of  wine — and  almost  the 


328  VINEGAR,   CIDER,    AND   FRUIT-WINES. 

only  one  which  passes  into  the  wine  by  the  fermentation  of  sugar, 
possesses  the  same  properties  whether  it  is  formed  from  fruit-sugar 
or  from  glucose,  and  that  neither  one  nor  the  other  can  be  injurious 
to  health  in  the  state  of  dilution  in  which  it  presents  itself  in  the 
wine,  provided  the  latter  be  used  in  moderation.  The  must  might 
be  sweetened,  as  is  frequently  done,  with  cane-sugar  which  occurs 
in  sugar-cane,  in  beet-root,  in  sugar-maple,  etc.  But  with  the  use 
of  glucose  we  are  one  step  in  advance,  since  cane-sugar  before 
fermenting  is  first  resolved  into  a  mixture  of  dextrose  (glucose) 
and  levulose. 

Commercial  glucose  is  never  pure,  as  it  contains,  besides  about 
15  per  cent,  of  water,  of  which  about  6  per  cent,  is  water  of 
crystallization,  about  1 8  per  cent,  of  dextrin  or  similar  substances, 
and  some  gypsum.  It  has  a  white  color  and  is  found  in  commerce 
packed  in  boxes  into  which  it  is  poured  while  in  a  fluid  state 
and  gradually  congeals  to  a  hard  mass.  It  is  odorless  and  has  a 
faint  sweet  taste.  On  heating  it  becomes  smeary  and  finally 
melts  to  a  yellowish  syrup.  Its  content  of  anhydrous  fruit- 
sugar  varies  between  62  and  67  per  cent.  Inferior  qualities  con- 
tain either  less  sugar  or  have  a  more  or  less  dark  color  and  a 
disagreeable  odor  and  taste.  Independently  of  the  content  of 
sugar,  glucose  to  be  suitable  for  the  preparation  of  wine  should 
show  no  odor  or  by-taste. 

The  accurate  determination  of  the  content  of  pure  sugar  in 
glucose  is  connected  with  some  difficulty.  But  few  manufacturers 
are  provided  with  the  necessary  materials  for  making  the  analysis 
with  Fehling's  solution,  and  besides  a  certain  amount  of  skill  is 
required  for  obtaining  accurate  results  by  chemical  tests.  In 
consideration  of  this,  Anthon  of  Prague  has  devised  tables  which 
are^  based  upon  the  varying  specific  gravity  of  different  saturated 
solutions  of  glucose,  or  rather  upon  its  solubility  in  water.  While 
1  part  of  anhydrous  grape-sugar  requires  for  its  solution  1.224 
parts  of  water  at  53.6°  F.,  the  foreign  admixtures  accompanying 
it  dissolve  in  every  proportion  in  water.  Hence  a  saturated 
solution  of  glucose  will  show  a  greater  specific  gravity  the  more 
foreign  substances  it  contains.  In  Authon's  tables  is  found  the 
specific  gravity  and  from  this  the  content  of  anhydrous  grape- 
sugar  or  glucose  in  the  solution.  In  preparing  a  solution  of 


CIDER    FROM    APPLES   AND   PEARS. 


329 


starch-sugar  for  examination  care  must  be  had  that  it  is  completely 
saturated.  Heat  must  not  be  used  for  eifecting  the  solution,  but 
a  certain  quantity  of  the  glucose  to  be  examined  is  rubbed  in  a 
mortar  with  one-half  its  weight  of  water  at  53.6°  F.,  and  after 
pouring  the  thickish,  turbid  fluid  into  a  tall  beaker  it  is  allowed 
to  stand  until  clear.  Anthon's  table  is  as  follows  : — 


Specific  gravity 

Specific  gravity 

of  the  solution 

of  the  solution 

saturated  at 

Contains  of  foreign 

saturated  at 

Contains  of  foreign 

53.6°  F. 

substances. 

53.6°  F. 

substances. 

1.2066 

0  per  cent. 

1.2522 

25  per  cent. 

1.2115 

2.5     " 

1.2555 

27.5  '  " 

1.2169 

5.0     " 

1.2587 

30.0     " 

1.2218 

7.5     " 

1.2631 

32.5     " 

1.2267 

10.0     " 

1.2665 

35.0     " 

1.2309 

12.5     " 

1.2703 

37.5     " 

1.2350 

15.0     " 

1.2740 

40.0     " 

1.2395 

17.5     " 

1.2778 

42.5     " 

1.2439 

20.0     " 

1.2815 

45.0     " 

1.2461 

22.5     " 

CHAPTER    XXVII. 

CIDER   FROM   APPLES   AND   PEARS. 

Cider  from  apples. — The  expressed  juice  of  well-selected  apples, 
properly  prepared,  forms  a  lively,  sparkling  liquor  far  superior  to 
many  wines.  It  is  quite  a  favorite  article  of  home  production, 
nearly  every  farmer  in  regions  where  apples  are  grown  making 
his  barrel  of  cider  for  use  through  the  winter,  but  a  large  amount 
finds  its  way  into  the  city  markets.  A  considerable  quantity  is 
also  consumed  in  the  shape  of  bottled  cider,  "  champagne  cider," 
"  sparkling  cider,"  and  similar  substances  for,  or  imitations  of, 
champagne  wines;  large  quantities  of  this  clarified  cider  being 
produced  in  some  parts  of  the  country,  notably  New  Jersey. 
Most  of  the  cheaper  kinds  of  champagne  (American  champagne) 
are  made  in  this  way. 

In  England  and  France  considerable  quantities  of  cider  find 


330 


VINEGAR,   CIDER,   AND   FRUIT-WINES. 


their  way  into  the  markets,  though  it  is  there,  as  here,  largely  an 
article  of  home  consumption.  Certain  parts  of  those  countries 
are  famous  for  the  quality  of  their  ciders,  notably  Normandy,  in 
France,  and  Herefordshire  and  Devonshire,  in  England.  France 
produced  in  1883,  23,493,000  hectoliters  (620,211,200  gallons)  of 
cider,  or  one-half  of  the  quantity  of  wine  produced  or  three  times 
as  much  as  the  total  quantity  of  malt  liquors. 

Rousseau  has  published  the  mean  of  twenty  analyses  of  Brit- 
tany cider,  but  his  results  are  so  low  that  it  is  thought  by  French 
authorities  that  his  samples  had  been  watered  : — 


Alcohol,  per  cent,  by  volume 
Extract  grammes  per  liter  . 
Sugar  .... 

Total  ash     .... 
Ash  soluble  in  water 


2.5 
19.3 
2.5 
1.52 
1.17 


The  following  are  analyses  of  pure  ciders  from  different  parts 
of  France  made  in  the  Paris  municipal  laboratory ;  the  figures 
are  in  grammes  per  liter  : — 


-  £ 

®  0 

«T 

0) 

1 

o 

c»  3 

^  ** 

t-- 

be   . 

cc 

SB  • 

r-    * 

c  > 

PH 

-  o 

06 

i  % 

c5 

^>H 

u- 

u'0> 

d 

*3 

,00      • 

»-  r-i  'A 

o  a 

0>      - 

2C 

'3  * 

13 

2  o 

O> 

•5  <B" 

o 
fe 

*. 

'£.  S^  ? 

0-3 

•-  a 

2 

s'S 

13 

2 

|1» 

^ 

PH 

o 

PH 

PH 

5 

5 

DH 

Alcohol,   in    weight,   per 

liter     ....    47.40 

41.08 

37.92 

34.76 

23.70 

7.90 

25.30 

19.75 

Extract  dried  at  212°  F.     ;  57.60 

30.90 

20.90 

61.30 

53.20 

69.70 

81.20 

'63.80 

Extract  dried  in  vacua 

60.10 

37.60 

27.00 

72.70 

60.80 

82.00 

92.60   75.00 

Total  ash 

3.50 

2.50 

2.50 

3.00 

2.60 

2.54 

2.30 

2.80 

Analysis  of  the  Ash. 

Phosphates  insoluble  in 

water  .... 
Carbonate  of  potash 
Other  alkaline  salts 

0.38 
2.23 
0.89 

— 

0.25 
1.40 
0.85 

0.30 
2.00 
0.70 

0.45 
1.80 
0.35 

0.62 
1.51 
0.41 

0.17 

20.55 

Reducing  sugar 
Acidity   expressed    as 

20.00 

7.50 

4.40 

3.70 

16.50 

36.00 

39.00 

25.00 

H2S04 
Acidity  of  the  cider  dried 

3.60 

4.07 

5.36 

4.54 

3.23 

2.68 

— 

2.08 

in  vacua         .         .         . 

2.50 

2.40 

2.59 

2.31 

2.68 

1.11 

— 

1.48 

CIDER   FROM   APPLES   AND   PEARS.  331 

Of  these  samples  the  first  four  had  undergone  a  good  fermen- 
tation. They  furnish  the  following  average  composition  for  the 
principal  constituents : — 

Alcohol,  per  cent,  by  volume     .....       5.2 

Extract,  per  liter,  at  212°  F 41.18 

Sugar 8.90 

Asli 2.87 

The  other  four  samples  were  partially  unferrnented,  or  sweet, 
ciders.  Their  average  composition  was  as  follows  : — 

Alcohol,  per  cent,  by  volume     .....       1.70 

Extract,  per  liter,  at  212°  F 66.98 

Ash 2.56 

From  these  means  the  municipal  laboratory  deduces  the  fol- 
lowing as  a  type  of  composition  for  pure  ciders  : — 


Alcohol,  per  cent,  by  volume 
Extract,  per  liter,  at  212°  F. 

A   ~1. 


.       5.66 
.     30.00 
Ash  .  2.80 


Recent  analyses  of  pure  ciders,  from  different  parts  of  France, 
published  by  M.  G.  Lechtartier,  have  shown  great  variations 
from  this  type,  and  show  the  necessity  for  the  examination  of 
large  numbers  of  samples  from  various  parts  of  the  country  for 
the  establishment  of  a  proper  standard  of  analysis. 

Analyses  of  ciders  by  the  United  States  Agricultural  Department. 
— The  samples  for  the  investigation  were  purchased  in  the  city  in 
the  same  manner  as  samples  of  wine  and  beer  : — 


332 


VINEGAR,   CIDER,    AND   FRUIT-WINES. 


1 

"7. 

'> 

9J 

$ 

OD 

2 

gS 

eg 

Designation.             j    ^ 

a 

A 

g 

•31 

if  = 

a 

-3 
&•- 

8*      . 

fl 

'a 

te  -r.    . 

I         5* 

0 

'3 

y>    oj 

si  O 

. 

3 

£ 

S2  g 

i         « 

O 

a, 

—  ^ 

f   5 

^ 

g 

"Q    0    CO 

85 

co 

< 

*" 

H 

ta 

03 

* 

< 

u 

— 

Well  fermented  ciders. 
Draft  cider  ("extra  dry")    4S30 

1 

1.0132 

p.ct. 
4.  IS 

p.ct. 
5.23 

p.ct. 
3.31 

p.ct. 

.602 

p  ,ct 

p.ct. 
.396 

p.ct. 
.038 

p.ct. 

O 

—195 

Bottled  cider,  known  to    4852 

2 

1.0003 

8  09  10  05 

1.88 

.456 

— 

.279 

.063  trace 

—7  0 

be  pure 
Bottled  cider    .        .        .    4S33 

3 

1.0007 

6.28    7.  S3 

1.80 

.376 

— 

.340 

.044J   _ 

—6.1 

Bottled  "extra  dry  rus-    4S34 

4 

1.0264 

4.48    5.61 

5  52 

.339 

— 

.393 

.031 

— 

—35.2 

set"  cider 

"Champagne  cider,"  bot-    48  >5 

5 

1.0223 

4.08    5.10 

502 

.567 

— 

.310 

.050 

.161 

—23.4 

tied 
'•  Champagne  cider,"  bot-    4836  |  6 

1.0143 

545    6.79 

3.69 

.361 



.415 

.038 

.120 

—20.4 

tl'>d 

"Sparkling  cider,"  bot-    4927 

7 

1.0306 

3.63    454 

5.92 

.113 

— 

.506 

— 

(2) 

—33.8 

tied 

Average     ...      — 

- 

1.0154 

5.17 

6.45 

3.88 

.402 

- 

.377 

.Oi4 

- 

- 

"Sweet"  or  incompletely 

fermented  ciders. 

Draft  cider        .        .        .     4829    1 

1.0537 

!  0.65    O.S1 

9.34 

.565 

- 

.315 

.069 

— 

—41.6 

"Sweet"  cider         .        .     4S31    2 

1.0516 

0.61    0  77 

9.59 

.302 



.270 

.063    — 

—  3i.2 

I 

"Sweet"  cider  (draft)    .4837    3 

1.0567 

0.20'  0  25 

9.53J   .375 

—      .283 

.075 

— 

—  18.4 

Do  4838    4 
Do  4839|  5 

1.0203 
1.0552 

343    4.33    3.84 
0.55!  0.67    9.75 

.302 
.409 

— 

.374 
.336 

014 
.031 

— 

—24.2 
—  4S.5 

Do  i  4841 

6     1.0355 

!  2.96|  3.71 

1 

6.98 

.478 

-' 

.348 

.069    — 

—39.1 

Average     ...      — 

- 

1.0455 

1.40    1.76    8.17 

.405 

- 

.321 

.059     — 

1 

- 

1  A  circumstance  arising  after  the  samples  had  been  thrown  away  seemed  to  throw  con- 
siderable doubt  upon  the  determinations  of  sugar,  which  were  made  by  an  assistant,  and 
the  entire  set  had  to  be  thrown  out. 

2  Determinations  of   the   carbonic  acid    in    three  different  bottles    gave    the  following 
results:    .728,  .634,  .482. 


The  choice  of  the  varieties  of  apples  is  of  great  importance  in 
the  manufacture  of  cider.  All  apple  juice  will  not  make  equally 
good  cider,  even  if  it  is  equally  well  handled.  It  is  not  always 
the  best  flavored  apple  or  the  best  tasting  juice  that  will  make 
the  best  cider.  Indeed,  as  a  rule,  the  best  cider  is  made  from 
apples  which  are  inferior  for  table  use,  such  as  the  crab-apple 
and  the  russet.  But  it  is  a  pretty  general  rule  that  the  most  as- 
tringent apple  will  make  the  best  cider.  This  astringeucy  is  due 
to  an  excess  of  tannin.  While  a  portion  of  this  tannin  is  changed 


CIDER   FROM   APPLES   AND    PEARS.  333 

to  sweetness  a  considerable  portion  remains,  which  serves  to  render 
the  cider  more  easily  and  thoroughly  clarified  and  to  make  it  keep 
better.  The  tongue  alone  being,  however,  not  sufficient  to  detect 
the  tannin  in  apples,  the  following  will  serve  as  a  reliable  test : 
Express  the  juice  of  a  few  apples  and  add  a  few  drops  of  isinglass, 
which  combines  with  the  tannin  and  forms  a  precipitate.  From 
the  greater  or  smaller  quantity  of  this  precipitate  a  conclusion 
can  be  drawn  as  to  the  quantity  of  tannin  present.  The  specific 
gravity  of  the  juice,  which  may  vary  between  1.05  and  1.08, 
should  be  determined.  The  greater  the  specific  gravity  of  the 
juice  the  better  the  respective  variety  of  apple  is  for  the  fabri- 
cation of  cider.  According  to  these  directions,  the  raw  material 
should  be  selected,  though  in  most  cases  it  will  be  necessary  to 
use  a  mixture  of  different  varieties.  In  France,  for  a  quality  of 
cider  wrhich  will  keep  well,  the  apples  are  mixed  in  the  following 
proportions  :  f  bitter-sweet  and  J  sweet  apples.  If  a  sweet  cider 
is  wanted  not  intended  to  be  kept  for  a  long  while,  J  bitter-sweet 
and  f  sweet  apples  are  used. 

The  most  noted  varieties  of  apples  said  to  possess  peculiar  and 
natural  properties  for  the  manufacture  of  refined  cider  or  apple- 
wine  are  the  "  Harrison"  and  "  Canfield"  of  New  Jersey,  from 
which  the  celebrated  New  Jersey  cider  is  almost  exclusively 
manufactured.  Of  the  Harrison  600  Ibs.  suffice  for  the  manu- 
facture of  30  gallons  of  cider.  Another  variety  is  the  "  Hagloe 
crab,'7  which  is  also  excellent  for  cooking.  Other  varieties  re- 
commended by  P.  Barry*  are  the  Dartmouth,  Hyslop,  and 
Hewe's  Virginia  crab.  The  Siberian  crab  (Pyrus  baccate.)  is 
also  highly  recommended  for  the  fabrication  of  cider  as  well  as 
for  jelly. 

The  following  is  a  select  list  of  apples  recommended  by  P. 
Barry  for  cultivation  in  the  Eastern  and  Middle  States.f 

Summer. — Early  Harvest,  Early  Strawberry,  Golden  Sweet, 
Large  yellow  Bough,  Primate,  Red  Astrachan,  Williams's  Favo- 
rite. 

*  Barry's  Fruit  Garden,  New  York,  1883. 

t  The  name  given  to  each  fruit  is  the  recognized  name  of  the  American 
Pomological  Society  as  far  as  recorded  in  their  catalogue. 


334  VINEGAR,   CIDER,    AND   FRUIT-WINES. 

Autumn. — Chenango  Strawberry,  Duchess  of  Oldenburgh,  Fall 
Pippin,  Gravenstein,  Hawthoruden,  Jefferis,  Jersey  Sweet,  Kes- 
wick  Cadlin,  Lowell,  Lyman's  Pumpkin  Sweet,  Porter,  St.  Law- 
rence, Stump. 

Winter. — Baldwin,  Esopus,  Spitzenburgh,  Fameuse,  Golden 
Russet  of  Western  New  York,  Hubbardston,  Nonsuch,  Jonathan, 
King  of  Tompkins  County,  Lady  Apple,  Monmouth  Pippin, 
Mother,  Northern  Spy,  Peck's  Pleasant,  Pomme  Grise,  Red 
Canada,  Rhode  Island  Greening,  Roxbury  Russet,  Sutton  Beauty, 
Talman's  Sweet,  Twenty-ounce,  Wagener,  Yellow  Bellflower. 

For  the  West  and  South. — Nearly  all  the  summer  and  fall 
varieties  succeed  well  at  the  West  and  South.  In  California  and 
Oregon  our  best  northern  sorts  generally  succeed,  but  the  winter 
varieties  of  the  South  will  be  better  adapted  to  the  warmer  dis- 
tricts of  California  than  our  Northern  winter  sorts. 

The  apples  intended  for  the  preparation  of  cider  should  be 
allowed  to  attain  complete  maturity,  which  is  recognized  by  their 
color,  the  dark  hue  of  the  pips,  little  specks  covering  the  skin, 
and  by  the  sharp  and  agreeable  ethereal  odor  emanating  from 
them.  In  fact  they  should  be  allowed  to  remain  on  the  trees  as 
long  as  vegetation  is  active  or  until  frosts  are  apprehended,  for 
thus  the  conversion  of  the  starch  into  sugar  is  best  effected  and 
their  keeping  better  secured  than  by  storing.  They  should  be 
gathered  by  the  hand  to  prevent  bruising  and  coming  in  contact 
with  dirt.  They  are  then  placed  in  piles  and  allowed  to  sweat. 
This  sweating  process  has  a  tendency  to  ripen  the  fruit  and  make 
it  uniform,  thereby  improving  the  flavor  as  well  as  the  quality 
and  strength  of  the  cider  in  consequence  of  the  apples  having 
parted  with  six  or  eight  per  cent,  of  wrater.  The  strongest  cider 
is  made  from  apples  containing  the  smallest  percentage  of  juice, 
and,  in  its  aqueous  solution,  the  largest  proportion  of  saccharine 
matter.  If  the  weather  be  fine,  the  piles  may  be  exposed  in  the 
open  air  upon  clean  sod  or  where  this  is  wanting  upon  boards  or 
linen  cloths,  but  under  no  circumstances  should  the  apples  be 
placed  upon  the  bare  ground  or  upon  straw,  as  they  contract  an 
earthy  or  musty  taste  which  is  afterwards  found  in  the  cider. 

After  sweating  and  before  being  ground  the  apples  should  be 
wiped  with  a  cloth  to  free  them  from  exudations  and  adhering 


CIDER   FROM   APPLES   AND   PEARS.  335 

particles  of  dirt,  and  if  any  are  found  bruised  or  rotten  they 
should  be  thrown  out.  Ripe,  sound  fruit  is  the  only  basis  for  a 
good  article  of  cider,  and  the  practice  of  mixing  rotten  apples 
with  the  sound,  as  is  frequently  done  and  even  advocated  by 
some,  cannot  be  too  strongly  condemned.  Mellow  or  decaying 
apples  have  lost  almost  all  their  perfume,  a  certain  quantity  of 
water  by  evaporation,  and  a  large  portion  of  their  sugar.  Rotten 
apples  yield  a  watery  liquid  of  an  abominable  taste,  which  pre- 
vents the  cider  from  clarifying  and  accelerates  its  acetification. 

The  apples  being  wiped,  sorted,  and,  if  necessary,  mixed  in  the 
desired  proportions,  are  now  brought  into  the  grinder  and  reduced 
to  an  impalpable  pulp.  By  this  operation  the  numerous  infini- 
tesimal cells  of  the  apple  should  be  thoroughly  broken  up  so  as 
to  permit  the  free  escape  of  the  juice  when  under  pressure,  and 
the  machine  which  accomplishes  this  most  effectually  is  the  best 
for  the  purpose.  If  the  cells  are  not  thoroughly  torn  asunder, 
their  tendency  is  to  restrain  and  hold,  as  it  were,  in  a  sack  much 
that  otherwise  would  escape.  As  regards  the  crushing  of  the 
seeds  there  is  a  diversity  of  opinion,  some  holding  that  they 
communicate  to  the  cider  a  disagreeable  bitterness  and  acidity, 
while  others  consider  them  as  rendering  the  cider  more  alcoholic 
and  making  it  keep  better. 

According  to  M.  Bergot,  for  cider  of  superior  quality  it  is  pre- 
ferable not  to  crush  the  seeds,  because  the  diffused  odor  of  the 
essential  oil  would  undoubtedly  injure  the  fine  taste  of  certain 
notable  products.  For  ordinary  cider  the  crushing  of  the  seeds 
will,  on  the  other  hand,  be  of  advantage,  because  their  essential 
oil  helps  to  give  to  the  cider  the  bouquet  which  it  otherwise 
lacks.  For  cider  intended  to  be  converted  into  brandy  the  seeds 
must,  however,  be  crushed.  The  grinder  should  be  cleansed  with 
hot  water  every  evening  or  at  least  every  third  day. 

The  treatment  to  which  the  pulp  obtained  by  grinding  is  sub- 
jected varies  according  to  the  color  the  cider  is  to  have.  Where 
the  consumer  prefers  a  pale-yellow  color  the  pulp  must  at  once 
be  pressed,  while  for  a  darker  color  it  is  allowed  to  stand  1 2  to 
18  hours. 

The  next  step  in  the  operation  is  pressing.  The  various  kinds 
of  presses,  racks,  and  manner  of  laying  up  the  cheese  have 


336  VINEGAR,   CIDER,   AND   FRUIT-WINES. 

already  been  described.  The  primitive  custom  of  laying  the 
cheese  was  to  lay  upon  the  platform  of  the  press  a  quantity  of 
straw,  upon  which  a  quantity  of  pomace  was  placed,  and  the 
edges  secured  by  laps  of  straw,  thus  alternating  straw  and 
pomace  until  the  pile  was  complete.  The  object  of  using  the 
straw  was  to  hold  the  mass  together  while  it  was  being  submitted 
to  pressure,  and  also  to  serve  as  a  means  of  exit  for  the  cider. 
An  improvement  was  in  the  substitution  of  hair-cloths,  and 
within  the  past  few  years  the  adoption  of  the  cotton  press-cloth 
and  racks  to  hold  the  pomace  in  laying  up  the  cheese  for  the 
press.  The  racks  have  already  been  described  ;  the  press-cloth  is 
woven  from  yarn  made  expressly  for  the  purpose  and  is  of  equal 
strength  in  warp  and  filling.  The  G.  H.  Bushnell  Company,  of 
Thompson ville,  Connecticut,  furnishes  several  grades  of  cotton 
press-cloth,  medium,  heavy,  and  extra  heavy.  The  use  of  straw 
in  laying  up  the  cheese  should  be  entirely  discarded,  as  the 
slightest  mustiness  imparts  an  unpleasant  odor  to  the  cider. 

The  pressure  applied  to  the  cheese  should  be  slow  at  starting 
and  then  gradually  increased  until  finally  the  full  force  is  applied. 
The  juice  as  it  comes  from  the  press  runs  through  a  fine  hair-sieve 
into  a  receiver.  With  a  good  press  about  65  to  75  per  cent,  of 
the  juice  will  be  obtained. 

After  the  cider  has  been  extracted  and  the  cheese  removed  from 
the  press  the  pomace  may  be  utilized  for  the  manufacture  of  vine- 
gar, as  described  on  p.  168.  In  France  it  is,  however,  used  for 
the  manufacture  of  the  small  cider.  The  method  is  as  follows  : — 
After  the  extraction  of  the  pure  cider  by  the  first  pressing,  the 
pomace  is  taken  from  the  press,  and  after  adding  15  liters  of 
water  for  every  hectoliter  of  apples  used,  the  mass  is  allowed  to 
macerate  15  to  20  hours,  care  being  had  to  stir  every  two  or 
three  hours.  Then  this  pulp  is  put  a  second  time  under  pressure 
and  a  quantity  of  juice  extracted  equivalent  to  the  amount  of 
water  added. 

Extraction  of  the  juice  by  diffusion. — Diffusion,  which  gives  such 
excellent  results  in  the  extraction  of  sugar-beets,  has  also  been 
applied  to  extract  the  soluble  constituents  of  the  apple,  but  in 
Huch  a  primitive  manner  that  the  juice  thus  obtained  produces 


CIDER   FROM   APPLES   AND   PEARS. 


337 


after  fermentation  a  beverage  very  deficient  in  alcohol  and  diffi- 
cult to  keep. 

M.  Jules  Nanot,  of  Paris,  France,  proposes  the  following  im- 
proved method  : — 

Suppose  we  take  150  kilogrammes  of  apples  reduced  to  pulp, 
divide  them  in  3  lots  of  50  kilogrammes  each  and  put  each  lot 
in  a  vat  or  tub.  These  tubs  are  then  placed  on  steps  one  above 
the  other  as  shown  in  Fig.  74.  They  communicate  with  each 
other  by  means  of  spigots  provided  in  the  interior  with  small 
convex  screens.  Care  must  be  had  to  keep  the  tubs  covered  not 


Fig.  74. 


Nol 


only  to  prevent  the  pulp  from  floating  but  also  to  prevent  oxida- 
tion, as  otherwise,  on  account  of  the  mass  remaining  exposed  to 
the  air  for  a  long  time  (3  times  24  hours),  would  yield  cider 
which  afterwards  would  turn  black. 

First  manipulation. — Pour  50  liters  of  water  into  tub  No.  1, 
and  macerate  24  hours. 

Second  manipulation. — Draw  off  the  liquid  in  No.  1,  by  opening 
the  spigot  into  No.  2,  and  pour  again  50  liters  of  water  into 
No.  1,  and  macerate  for  24  hours. 

Third  manipulation. — Draw  off  the  liquid  from  No.  2  into  No. 
3  and  the  liquid  from  No.  1  into  No.  2.  Pour  50  liters  of  water 
into  No.  1  and  macerate  for  24  hours. 

Fourth  manipulation. — Draw  off  the  liquid  from  No.  3.  Then 
draw  off  the  liquid  from  No.  2  into  No.  3,  and  from  No.  1  into 
No.  2.  Now  remove  No.  1  and  replace  its  exhausted  pulp  with 
22 


338  VINEGAR,   CIDER,    AND   FRUIT-WINES. 

freshly  ground  apples ;  then  instead  of  putting  it  in  the  highest 
place,  place  it  at  the  bottom  and  shift  Xos.  2  and  3  one  step 
higher  up,  so  that  No.  2  becomes  1,  Xo.  3,  2,  and  Xo.  1,  3.  Then 
draw  off  the  liquid  in  Xo.  2  into  Xo.  3  and  that  of  Xo.  1  into 
Xo.  2. 

Xow  pour  50  liters  of  water  into  the  upper  tub  X"o.  1  and  repeat 
this  every  24  hours.  The  liquid  which  is  drawn  off  every  24 
hours  from  the  lowest  tub  is  poured  into  the  barrel  in  which  it  is 
to  ferment. 

At  first  this  fourth  manipulation  seems  complicated,  but  after 
having  done  it  once  there  will  be  found  no  difficulty  in  its 
execution.  What  seems  to  complicate  it  somewhat  is  the  indis- 
pensable placing  of  the  tub  with  the  freshly  crushed  apples  on 
the  base  of  the  steps  in  order  to  have  the  richest  juice  discharged 
into  it.  To  briefly  recapitulate :  the  most  exhausted  apples  are 
always  placed  at  the  top  of  the  steps  and  the  less  dense  liquid 
added  to  them  and  the  freshest  apples  on  the  bottom  to  receive 
the  richest  juices. 

By  this  disposition  the  apples  are  thoroughly  exhausted,  and 
after  having  passed  through  the  operation  the  liquid  obtained 
will  show  an  alcoholic  strength  equal  to  f  of  the  alcohol  contained 
in  the  pure  juice,  and  is  at  all  events  greatly  superior  to  the  juice 
obtained  by  the  old  methods  of  diffusion. 

The  use  of  this  method  Avould  be  suitable  for  persons  having 
no  cider  press  and  only  a  small  quantity  of  apples  to  manipulate- 

The  quantity  of  cider  is  nearly  equal  to  that  obtained  by  three 
pressures  and  the  juice  obtained  by  diffusion  is  almost  as  rich  as 
jthe  juice  yielded  by  the  press. 

After  one  or  two  manipulations  it  is  quite  easy  to  operate  sue- 
eessfnlly  without  weighing  the  apples  and  also  the  water  to  be 
used.  It  is  sufficient  for  that  purpose  to  mark  on  the  inner  side 
of  the  tub  the  height  to  which  a  certain  quantity  of  crushed 
apples  come,  and  measure  the  water  in  the  same  manner.  In 
•order  to  pass  the  liquid  into  the  next  lower  tub  and  draw  it  off 
finally  from  the  last  tub,  it  is  sufficient  to  open  the  spigots  and 
allow  the  liquid  to  run  off  naturally.  The  quantity  of  liquid 
thus  drawn  off  is  less  by  about  T\  the  amount  poured  in  at  the 


CIDER   FROM   APPLES   AXD    PEARS.  339 

commencement  of  the  operation.     It  is  impossible  to  extract  all  as 
that  would  require  the  use  of  a  press. 

Unfortunately  this  process  of  diffusion  is  very  slow  on  account 
of  the  necessarily  small  size  of  the  tubs,  and  their  capacity  can 
scarcely  be  increased  as  in  that  case  two  men  would  have  consid- 
erable difficulty  in  raising  them  from  one  step  to  the  other. 

In  order  to  accelerate  this  method  and  apply  it  to  the  produc- 
tion of  large  quantities  of  cider  large  tubs  would  be  required,  and 
instead  of  disposing  them  on  steps  they  would  have  to  be  placed 
on  the  floor  of  the  room  and  the  passage  of  the  liquids  from  one 
tub  to  the  other  be  effected  by  a  system  of  pumps.  The  number 
of  tubs  might  then  be  increased  to  five  or  six  ;  and  by  the  appli- 
cation of  heat  a  more  complete  exhaustion  of  the  apples  could  be 
reached. 

Recent  successful  experiments  in  expressing  the  juice  of  the 
grape  by  means  of  the  centrifugal  would  indicate  that  the  same 
method  might  also  be  applied  to  apples. 

The  juice  of  the  apples  obtained  by  either  of  the  preceding 
methods  is  now  tested  with  the  must  areometer  as  to  its  saccharine 
content.  If  it  is  too  low  it  will  be  useless  to  try  to  make  cider 
of  it  unless  that  quality  is  strengthened.  Generally  good  juice 
will  range  from  10  to  14  per  cent.  If  it  is  any  less  than  10  per 
cent,  it  will  not  make  a  cider  which  will  keep,  though,  if  the 
flavor  in  other  respects  is  all  right,  a  very  light  cider  for  immedi- 
ate use  may  be  produced  from  it. 

The  juice  having  been  tested  and,  if  found  wanting  in  saccharine 
strength,  corrected  by  the  method  given  on  p.  326,  the  next  step  in 
the  operation  is  fermentation.  For  this  purpose  the  juice  is  brought 
into  clean,  sound  barrels  or  into  large  vats.  After  a  few  hours 
an  active  fermentation  will  commence,  which  is  usually  permitted 
to  continue,  with  the  bung  loose,  until  the  hissing  sound,  so  readily 
discernible  when  carbonic  acid  gas  is  escaping,  shall  cease.  The 
cider  is  then  drawn  off  into  clean  barrels,  separating  it  from  the 
sediment.  The  barrels  are  placed  in  a  cellar  or  a  cool  room 
having  a  uniform  temperature,  one  of  57°  to  64°  F.  being  most 
suitable.  Abrupt  variations  in  temperature  should  be  carefully 
avoided  and  provided  against.  The  barrels  must  be  carefully 
watched,  and  as  soon  as  white  bubbles  are  perceived  rising  at  the 


340  VINEGAR,    CIDER,   AND   FRUIT-WINES. 

bung-hole,  the  cider  is  again  racked  off  into  other  barrels  whereby 
fermentation  is,  of  coarse,  interrupted.  The  distinguishing  char- 
acteristic between  the  fermentation  of  wine  and  cider  may  here  be 
referred  to.  Wine  is  allowed  to  completely  ferment  without 
interruption,  but  the  fermentation  of  cider  must  be  checked  at  a 
certain  time  as  otherwise  acetic  acid  commences  to  form,  the  pro- 
gressive development  of  which  would  in  a  year  render  the  cider 
unfit  to  drink.  For  the  preparation  of  cider  on  a  large  scale 
skill  in  handling  the  must  areometer  is  absolutely  necessary,  and 
care  should  be  had  not  to  allow  the  entire  content  of  sugar  to  be 
converted  into  alcohol.  Generally  speaking  cider  must  be  racked 
three  times,  but  each  time  only  when  the  previously  mentioned 
white  bubbles  appear  at  the  bung-hole.  Where  the  barrels  can 
be  placed  in  a  cellar  having  a  temperature  of  32°  F.,  or  not  much 
above  it,  fermentation  can  be  readily  checked.  Such  cellars 
being,  however,  rare,  recourse  must  be  had  to  artificial  means  to 
effectually  prevent  any  further  fermentation.  Various  methods 
have  been  practised  with  a  view  to  accomplish  that  object,  one  of 
which  was  to  thrust  a  lighted  sulphur  match  into  the  bung-hole 
of  the  barrel.  This  method  is,  however,  but  little  used  at  the 
present  time.  Another  plan  which  can  be  recommended  is  to 
submerge  in  the  barrel  ground  brown  mustard-seed  tied  in  a  bag. 
But  the  most  effectual  method,  and  which  is  generally  used  by 
professional  cider  makers,  is  to  add  from  J  to  J  oz.  of  sulphite  of 
lime  to  each  gallon  of  cider  in  the  barrel,  first  mixing  the  powder 
in  about  a  quart  of  the  cider,  then  pouring  it  back  into  the  barrel 
and  giving  it  a  thorough  shaking  or  rolling.  The  sulphite  of 
lime  must  be  used,  and  not  the  sulphate.  It  will  preserve  the 
sweetness  of  cider  for  many  years,  but  care  must  be  had  not  to 
use  too  much,  as  otherwise  it  will  impart  a  taste  of  sulphur  to  the 
cider. 

For  the  preparation  of  very  fine  cider  throw  J  Ib.  of  white 
sugar  into  the  barrel  and  suspend  a  bag  of  raisins  in  it  by 
squeezing  one  corner  between  the  bung  and  bung-hole. 

The  oiling  process  is  another  method  of  checking  fermenta- 
tion. It  consists  in  pouring  into  the  bung-hole  of  a  barrel  about 
half  a  pint  of  sweet  oil.  The  oil  should  be  warm  when  poured 
in  to  enable  it  to  spread  in  a  thin  coat  over  the  surface  and  keep 


CIDER   FROM   APPLES   AND   PEARS.  341 

spreading  as  the  cider  is  drawn  down,  thereby  preventing  the  air 
from  coming  in  contact  with  the  surface  of  the  cider  and  con- 
verting it  into  acetic  acid. 

We  will  here  call  attention  to  salicylic  acid,  which  as  an  agent 
for  checking  fermentation  might  be  even  more  effective  than  sul- 
phite of  lime  or  powdered  mustard-seed.  The  "  salicylic  acid 
question,"  as  it  is  called,  has  received  a  great  deal  of  attention 
for  several  years  in  Europe,  and  much  has  been  written  pro  and 
con  on  the  question  of  the  propriety  of  its  use  as  a  preserving 
agent  in  articles  of  food  and  drink.  In  France  its  use  as  a  pre- 
servative in  any  form  of  food  or  drink  was  forbidden  by  minis- 
terial decree  on  the  7th  of  February,  1881.  This  decree  was 
based  upon  the  decision  of  the  consulting  committee  of  hygiene 
that  its  constant  use  was  dangerous  to  health. 

In  Germany  its  use  is  prohibited  except  in  beers  intended  for 
export  to  other  countries  where  its  use  is  allowed. 

Its  prohibition  in  France  called  forth  a  great  deal  of  opposition, 
and  experiments  were  made  and  published  indicating  that  its  con- 
stant use  in  small  doses  exerted  no  injurious  influence  upon  the  sys- 
tem. In  this  country  but  little  attention  seems  to  have  been  given 
to  the  use  of  salicylic  acid  as  a  preservative,  and,  as  far  as  we  know, 
no  experiments  have  been  made  with  it  in  checking  fermentation 
in  cider.  Whether  its  use  for  many  years  and  without  regard  to 
age,  sex,  or  personal  idiosyncrasy  is  harmless  or  not,  is  at  least 
still  an  open  question.  Moreover,  the  quantity  used  is  so  ex- 
ceedingly small  that  its  injurious  effect  upon  the  health  of 
moderate  drinkers  of  beer,  wine  or  cider  would  seem  rather 
doubtful.  For  wine  the  limits  of  its  addition  lie  between  0.02 
and  0.1  gramme  per  liter.  For  use  dissolve  the  salicylic  acid  to 
a  concentrated  solution  best  in  pure  spirits  of  wine  free  from  fusel 
oil  or  in  the  wine  itself  and  add  the  determined  quantity.  To 
find  the  latter  dissolve  5  grammes  of  crystallized  salicylic  acid  in 
100  cubic  centimetres  of  spirits  of  wine  or  of  wine  and  add  a 
series  of  quantities  of  this  solution,  commencing  with  1  cubic 
centimetre  and  gradually  increasing  to  2  cubic  centimetres,  to  the 
wine.  These  quantities  represent  0.5  to  0.1  gramme  of  salicylic 
acid  per  liter.  A  larger  content  of  sugar  in  proportion  to  the 
content  of  alcohol  requires  somewhat  more  salicylic  acid. 


342  VINEGAR,   CIDER,   AND   FRUIT-WINES. 

The  cider  being  protected  from  further  fermentation  by  either 
one  of  the  above-mentioned  methods  is  allowed  to  lay  undisturbed 
until  April,  when  it  can  be  bottled  or  for  quick  consumption 
tapped  from  the  barrel.  But  before  being  offered  for  sale  it  has 
to  be  clarified  like  other  wine.  According  to  the  old  method 
this  was  done  with  isinglass,  30  grammes  of  which  were  allowed 
for  each  barrel.  This  quantity  was  dissolved  in  J  liter  of  cider 
over  a  moderate  fire  and  the  solution  when  cold  poured  with  con- 
stant agitation  into  the  barrel.  Drawing  off  can  be  commenced 
after  eight  days. 

A  better  mode  of  clarification,  Avhich  at  the  same  time  increases 
the  purity  of  the  taste  of  the  cider,  is  as  follows  :  For  each  barrel 
of  30  gallons  take  4  Ibs.  of  fresh  wheat  bran,  and  after  washing 
it  twice  in  hot  water  to  remove  all  soluble  substances,  press  out 
thoroughly.  Now  dissolve  about  2  drachms  of  alum  in  a  bucket- 
ful of  hot  water  and  pour  the  solution  upon  the  bran.  After  6 
to  8  hours  take  the  latter  from  the  alum  water  and  press  as  be- 
fore. The  bran  is  best  used  before  the  cider  is  racked  off  for  the 
third  and  last  time.  Stir  it  into  the  cider  and  then  draw  off  the 
latter  through  a  fine  strainer  into  the  actual  storage  barrel.  The 
cider  first  passing  through  the  strainer  is  generally  somewhat 
turbid,  and  must  be  poured  back  until  it  runs  off  clear. 

In  France  the  cider  is  generally  clarified  by  dissolving  60 
grammes  of  catechu  in  1  liter  of  cider  and  adding  the  solution  to 
1  hectoliter  of  cider,  with  constant  stirring.  The  tannin  thus 
added  precipitates  the  albuminous  matters,  the  result  being  a 
clear  cider  which  will  not  blacken  in  the  air. 

Cider  intended  for  export  must  be  made  somewhat  richer  in 
alcohol,  which  is  generally  done  by  adding  sufficient  French 
brandy  to  increase  its  content  of  alcohol  2  per  cent.  Sometimes, 
also,  i  Ib.  of  sugar  for  every  2  quarts  of  juice  is  added  during 
fermentation.  For  shipping  to  tropical  countries  experiments 
might  be  made  with  salicylic  acid,  adding  it  in  the  same  propor- 
tion as  to  beer,  which  is  for  beer  sent  in  barrels  20  grammes  per 
hectoliter,  and  for  bottled  beer  15  grammes. 

There  are  several  methods  of  improving  the  taste  of  cider,  but 
they  are  rather  questionable,  because  tastes  differ,  and  what 
might  be  considered  an  improvement  by  one  would  be  declared 


CIDER   FROM   APPLES   AND   PEARS.  343 

a  defect  by  another. ,  A  favorite  means  of  improvement  is  as' 
follows :  For  45  gallons  of  cider  measure  oif  3  quarts  of  French 
brandy  and  mix  it  with  the  following  substances,  all  finely  pow- 
dered :  0.7  drachm  of  bitter  almonds,  0.7  drachm  of  mace,  and 
7J  drachms  of  mustard-seed,  and  finally  3J  drachms  of  catechu, 
previously  dissolved  in  water.  Pour  this  mixture  into  the  cider 
and  shake  the  barrel  frequently  during  the  next  14  days.  Then 
allow  it  to  rest  three  or  four  months,  and  should  it  then  not  run 
oif  clear,  when  tapped,  clarify  it  with  1J  oz.  of  isinglass  or  the 
whites  of  a  dozen  eggs.  If  the  color  of  the  cider  is  to  remain 
pale  yellow,  catechu  cannot  be  used,  and  instead  of  isinglass  or 
white  of  egg,  skimmed  milk  is  to  be  used  for  clarification.  For 
a  reddish  color  which  is  sometimes  desired  use  If  drachms  of 
powdered  cochineal  in  place  of  the  catechu. 

Sometimes  cider  is  prepared  in  the  same  manner  as  other -fruit- 
wines.  In  this  case  J  Ib.  of  sugar  is  added  to  every  liter  of  juice, 
and  the  latter  is  allowed  to  completely  ferment  in  the  same  man- 
ner as  grape-wine.  According  to  another  direction,  add  to  every 
2  quarts  of  juice  2  Ibs.  of  white  sugar  and  boil  as  long  as  scum 
is  formed;  then  strain  through  a  fine  hair-sieve  and  allow  to  cool. 
Now  add  a  small  quantity  of  yeast,  stir  thoroughly,  let  the  whole 
ferment  three  weeks,  and  after  clarifying  rack  oif  into  bottles. 

Red  apple-wine,  or,  as  it  is  frequently  called,  red  wine  from 
cider,  is  prepared  as  follows :  Boil  for  2  hours  50  quarts  of  apple 
juice,  27  Ibs.  of  honey,  1  oz.  of  tartar,  6  Ibs.  of  comminuted  red 
beets,  and  3  Ibs.  of  brown  sugar.  Let  the  fluid  completely  fer- 
ment, and  if  no  apple  juice  is  on  hand  to  fill  up  the  barrel  during 
this  process  use  solution  of  sugar.  When  fermentation  is  fin- 
ished pour  a  mixture  of  1  quart  of  French  brandy  and  about  1 
drachm  each  of  pulverized  cinnamon  and  ginger  into  the  barrel. 
After  three  months  clarify  the  wine  and  rack  oif. 

Sweet  dder  can  be  prepared  in  the  following  simple  manner : 
Boil  the  juice  as  soon  as  it  comes  from  the  press  for  two  hours, 
removing  the  scum  which  arises.  Then  pour  the  hot  fluid  into 
bottles  previously  placed  in  warm  water,  cork  and  seal  with  a 
mixture  of  resin  and  tallow,  in  the  proportion  of  1  Ib.  to  4 
drachms,  kept  in  a  fluid  state.  After  sealing  hold  the  neck  of 


344  VINEGAR,   CIDER,   AND   FRUIT-WINES. 

the  bottle  in  cold  water  for  one  minute.     Thus  treated  the  sweet 
cider  will  keep  seven  or  eight  months. 

In  his  treatise  on  Cider,  Dr.  Denis-Dumont  gives  the  following 
directions  for  bottling  cider.  The  cider  is  to  be  bottled  at  three 
distinct  periods.  It  should  never  be  bottled  before  the  tumul- 
tuous stage  of  fermentation  is  entirely  completed  and  the  liquid 
clarified. 

First  period. — At  the  termination  of  the  tumultuous  fermenta- 
tion the  cider  still  contains  considerable  sugar;  fermentation  con- 
tinues in  the  bottle  and  produces  in  a  few  weeks  a  large  quantity 
of  carbonic  acid.  In  order  to  prevent  the  bottles  from  being 
broken  by  the  pressure,  champagne  bottles  should  be  selected 
and  care  taken  to  have  them  stand  upright  until  about  the 
month  of  July,  i.  <?.,  until  the  development  is  considerably  re- 
duced. The  bottles  are  then  laid  on  their  side,  as  otherwise  the 
cider  would  cease  to  be  sparkling.  This  cider  has  to  be  kept  for 
a  number  of  years,  it  being  good  to  drink  only  when  old. 

Second  period,  when  fermentation  is  more  advanced,  about  six 
weeks  or  two  months  after  the  first  period.  Mineral  water 
bottles  are  strong  enough  to  hold  this  cider,  it  liberating  less  car- 
bonic acid  than  the  preceding.  The  bottles  are  left  in  an  upright 
position  for  a  few  weeks  only. 

This  cider  has  a  good  flavor  and  is  fit  to  drink  much  sooner 
than  the  preceding.  It  keeps  for  a  long  time. 

Third  period,  when  fermentation  is  complete  or  almost  so,  any 
quality  of  bottles  may  be  used,  a  great  deal  less  of  carbonic  acid 
being  developed  than  in  the  preceding  cases.  The  bottles  should 
be  laid  down  immediately  after  filling,  in  order  to  retain  the  car- 
bonic acid  which  will  still  be  developed. 

This  cider  is  not  sparkling ;  it  is,  however,  lively,  strong,  and 
lias  a  fine  flavor. 

The  bottles  should  in  every  instance  be  well  corked  and  the 
corks,^for  the  sake  of  safety,  tied.  The  cider  is  very  good  when 
kept  in  small  bottles,  better  in  quart  bottles,  and  best  in  jars 
holding  two  quarts.  A  few  moments  before  opening  a  bottle  of 
sparkling  cider  it  is  advisable  to  provide  a  minute  opening  for 
the  escape  of  the  gas  by  piercing  the  cork  with  a  fine  punch.  As 
soon  as  the  tension  of  the  gas  has  become  sufficiently  weak  the 


CIDER   FROM   APPLES   AND    PEARS.  345 

cork  is  allowed  to  blow  out  in  the  same  manner  as  with  cham- 
pagne. Without  this  precaution  most  of  the  cider  might  be 
thrown  up  to  the  ceiling. 

In  the  Island  of  Jersey,  where  the  manufacture  of  cider  is  car- 
ried on  in  a  very  rational  manner,  the  juice  as  it  comes  from  the 
press  is  allowed  to  ferment  in  large  open  vats  placed  in  a  cellar 
having  a  uniform  temperature  of  from  53°  to  59°  F.  On  ac- 
count of  the  large  surface  presented  to  the  air  tumultuous  fer- 
mentation soon  sets  in  and  in  about  four  or  five  days,  or  at  the 
utmost  a  week,  fermentation  is  over.  The  liquid  is  then  drawn 
off  in  barrels,  thoroughly  cleansed  and  sulphured,  in  which  fer- 
mentation continues  slowly.  These  barrels  are  not  entirely 
filled,  and  when  the  development  of  carbonic  gas  has  proceeded 
so  far  that  the  flame  of  a  lighted  candle  introduced  by  the  bung- 
hole  is  extinguished,  the  liquid  is  drawn  off  into  other  barrels 
sulphured  like  the  first.  This  transfer  from  one  set  of  barrels  to 
another  is  continued  until  no  escape  of  gas  is  perceptible,  i.  e., 
until  fermentation  is  quite  complete. 

Prepared  in  this  manner  the  cider  will  keep  perfectly  good  for 
several  years,  and  stand  transportation  by  sea  without  any  diffi- 
culty. 

Devonshire-cider  is  made  from  a  mixture  of  one-third  of  bitter- 
sweet apples  with  a  mild  sour.  These  being  gathered  when  thor- 
oughly ripe  are  allowed  to  undergo  the  sweating  process  before 
grinding ;  the  cider  is  then  pressed  in  the  usual  manner  and  strained 
through  a  hair-sieve  into  hogsheads,  where  it  remains  for  two  or 
three  days  previous  to  fermenting.  It  is  then  drawn  off  into  clean 
casks  to  stop  the  fermentation,  but  if  this  is  very  strong  only  two  or 
three  gallons  are  first  put  in,  and,  after  burning  cotton  or  linen  rags 
saturated  with  sulphur  in  the  cask,  thoroughly  agitated.  This  com- 
pletely stops  fermentation  in  that  quantity  and  usually  checks  it  in 
the  other  portion  with  which  the  cask  is  then  filled  up.  In  a  few 
weeks  the  cider  becomes  very  fine.  If  this  be  not  satisfactorily 
accomplished  by  the  first  operation  it  is  repeated  until  fermenta- 
tion is  completely  checked  and  the  cider  is  in  a  quiet  state  and  in 
a  proper  condition  for  drinking  and  bottling. 

Heating  of  cider. — G.  Lechartier  has  made  numerous  experi- 
ments to  preserve  cider  by  heating  in  bottles  or  in  barrels  holding 
from  25  to  230  quarts.  The  experiments  showed  that  a  tempera- 


346  VINEGAR,   CIDER,   AND   FRUIT-WINES. 

ttire  of  140°  F.  suffices  to  suppress  every  kind  of  fermentation  in 
cider  which  contained  only  3  to  6  per  cent,  of  alcohol.  But  in  all 
cases  the  cider  thus  treated  acquired  a  peculiar  taste  calling  to  mind 
that  of  dried  fruit.  The  following  experiments  show  how  this  evil 
can  be  removed :  On  April  16,  1888,  barrels  holding  from  25  to  50 
quarts  were  filled  with  cider  previously  heated  to  from  140°  to 
149°  F. ;  on  June  14,  of  the  same  year,  the  peculiar  taste,  re- 
ferred to  above,  was  noticed,  though  no  change  in  the  composi- 
tion by  alcoholic  or  acetous  fermentation  had  taken  place.  To 
the  content  of  every  barrel  was  now  added  a  bottle  of  the  same 
cider  not  previously  heated,  whereupon  regular  alcoholic  fermen- 
tation set  in  anew.  On  July  9,  of  the  same  year,  the  cider  had 
lost  the  taste  of  dried  fruit  and  re-acquired  its  original  taste.  On 
July  11,  of  the  same  year,  it  was  drawn  off  into  bottles,  was  spark- 
ling in  September,  and  retained  its  normal  taste.  The  process  hav- 
ing been  tested  by  experts,  the  Congress  of  the  "Association  pomolo- 
gique  de  1'Ouest,"  held  at  Havre,  expressed  a  favorable  opinion  of 
it  and  declared  the  problem  of  keeping  cider  sweet  as  solved. 

Freezing  of  cider. — G.  Lech  artier  also  made  experiments  in 
this  direction,  his  object  being  to  answer  the  following  questions: 

1.  Are  the  aroma,  taste,  and  clearness  of  cider  changed  by  cold? 

2.  Of  what  nature  are  the  products  obtained  by  freezing,  and 
does  the  latter  take  place  without  sensible  loss  of  substance?     3. 
Are  the  ferments  killed  by  sufficiently  long  cooling,  and  is  cider 
thus  treated  protected  from  external  influences? 

For  all  the  experiments  the  cider  was  subjected  to  a  tempera- 
ture of  from  —  0.4°  to  —  4°  F.  A  portion  of  the  fluid  congeals, 
and  the  temperature  rises  to  from  26.6°  to  24.8°  F.  As  soon  as 
a  sufficient  quantity  has  become  solid  the  fluid  portion  is  poured 
off,  which  has  a  higher  specific  gravity  than  the  original  cider. 
The  ice  crystals  melt  to  a  nearly  colorless  fluid,  which  has  a 
specific  gravity  of  1  and  contains  only  0.3  per  cent,  of  alcohol. 
From  ciders  with  4  to  5  per  cent,  of  alcohol  were  obtained  by 
freezing  concentrated  ciders  with  7  to  8  per  cent,  of  alcohol,  and 
60  to  80  grammes  of  dry  extract  per  liter,  which  corresponds 
with  the  composition  of  the  richest  Normandy  cider.  These 
ciders,  after  remaining  for  several  months  in  bottles,  differed  but 
little  as  regards  color,  content,  and  taste  from  the  best  products 


CIDER    FROM   APPLES   AND   PEARS.  347 

of  Normandy  as  certified  to  by  the  Congresses  of  the  "Associa- 
tion pomologique  de  1'Ouest,"  held  in  Versailles  and  Havre. 
The  results  thus  obtained  are  entirely  different  from  those  by  an 
addition  of  sugar  to  the  must.  While  the  addition  of  sugar  only 
increases  the  content  of  alcohol,  by  freezing  all  the  constituents 
derived  from  the  apple  are  concentrated,  and  the  same  time  also 
the  taste  and  aroma.  For  this  reason,  ciders  having  a  slight 
by-taste  cannot  be  improved  by  freezing.  The  value  of  light 
ciders  of  a  pure  and  agreeable  taste  is,  however,  greatly  enhanced 
by  the  treatment.  As  regards  the  third  question,  G.  Lechartier 
arrives  at  the  conclusion  that  must  and  cider  in  various  stages  of 
fermentation  are  not  sterilized  even  by  cooling  for  212  hours, 
the  process  of  fermentation  only  being  retarded  during  the  time  of 
cooling. 

Champagne-cider.  —  The  manufacture  of  this  beverage  has 
recently  become  quite  important — it  resembling  the  ordinary  but 
more  expensive  champagne-wine,  and  being  frequently  sold  as 
such.  Since  the  devastation  of  the  vineyards  by  the  phylloxera, 
a  large  trade  in  this  spurious  champagne-wine  is  carried  on  in 
France.  Champagne-cider,  manufactured  in  New  Jersey,  is 
exported  to  France,  where  it  is  repacked  and  provided  with 
genuine  champagne  labels.  It  is  then  re-shipped  to  New  York 
as  genuine  champagne.  This  champagne-cider  if  sold  under  its 
right  name  is  an  excellent  beverage.  It  is  prepared  as  follows: 
To  50  gallons  of  apple-juice  add  12  quarts  of  brandy  and  14 
Ibs.  of  sugar  or  honey.  Mix  the  whole  thoroughly,  and  allow 
it  to  ferment  for  one  month  in  a  cool  place.  Then  add  about  4 
drachms  of  orange-blossom  water,  and  clarify  with  2  quarts  of 
skimmed  milk.  The  champagne  is  now  ready  and  is  racked  off 
into  bottles,  into  which  a  small  piece  of  white  sugar  is  thrown, 
and  the  corks  of  which  are  wired.  The  duration  of  fermentation 
has  been  stated  as  one  month ;  it  may,  however,  last  a  few  days 
more  or  less,  it  being  entirely  a  matter  of  observation  when  the 
most  suitable  time  for  racking  off  has  arrived.  No  more  rising 
of  bubbles  of  gas  should  be  observed,  but  fermentation  must  not 
be  completely  finished. 

According  to  another  direction,  40  quarts  of  fermented  apple- 
juice  are  mixed  with  2  quarts  of  solution  of  sugar,  J  quart  of 


348  VINEGAR,    CIDER,   AND    FRUIT-WINES. 

rectified  alcohol,  and  2  ounces  and  4  drachms  of  pulverized 
tartar.  The  mixture  is  allowed  to  stand  24  hours  and  then 
racked  off  into  bottles,  each  bottle  receiving  a  drachm  of  bicar- 
bonate of  soda.  Cork  and  wire. 

Another  process  consists  in  bringing  into  a  vat  of  40  quarts 
of  apple-juice,  5  pounds  of  white  sugar,  J  pound  of  tartar,  1 
pint  of  rectified  alcohol,  J  pint  of  yeast,  and  1  ounce,  2J  drachms 
of 'acetic  ether.  The  mixture  shortly  before  fermentation  is 
finished  is  drawn  off  into  bottles,  each  of  which  has  been  pre- 
viously provided  with  a  small  piece  of  sugar.  Clarification  with 
isinglass,  white  of  egg,  or  skimmed  milk  must,  of  course,  precede 
the  drawing  off  into  bottles.  The  bottles  must  be  thoroughly 
corked  and  wired  in  the  same  manner  as  genuine  champagne, 
and  laid  in  a  cool  cellar. 

Cider  serves  frequently  as  a  basis  for  artificial  wines,  genuine 
Burgundy,  sherry,  or  port- wine,  prepared  from  cider  mixed  with 
suitable  substances,  being  frequently  served  even  in  first-class 
hotels.  Nothing  could  be  said  against  these  beverages  if  they 
were  sold  under  their  proper  names,  because  they  consist  of  harm- 
less substances,  which  cannot  always  be  said  of  the  genuine  wines, 
they  being  only  too  frequently  adulterated  with  substances  injuri- 
ous to  health. 

Burgundy. — Bring  into  a  barrel  40  quarts  of  apple-juice,  5 
pounds  of  bruised  raisins,  \  pound  of  tartar,  1  quart  of  bilberry 
juice,  and  3  pounds  of  sugar.  Allow  the  whole  to  ferment,  fill- 
ing constantly  up  with  cider.  Then  clarify  with  isinglass,  add 
about  1  ounce  of  essence  of  bitter  almonds,  and  after  a  few  weeks 
draw  off  into  bottles. 

Malaga-wine.  —  Apple-juice,  40  quarts;  crushed  raisins,  10 
pounds;  rectified  alcohol,  2  quarts;  sugar  solution,  2  quarts; 
elderberry  flowers,  1  quart;  acetic  ether,  1  ounce,  2  drachms. 
The  desired  coloration  is  effected  by  the  addition  of  bilberry  or 
elderberry -juice;  otherwise,  the  process  is  the  same  as  given  for 
Burgundy. 

Sherry-mne.  —  Apple-juice,  50  quarts;  orange  flower  water, 
about  2  drachms;  tartar,  2  ounces,  4  drachms;  rectified  alcohol, 
3  quarts;  crushed  raisins,  10  pounds;  acetic  ether,  1  ounce,  2 
drachms.  The  process  is  the  same  as  for  Burgundy. 


CIDER    FROM    APPLES   AND   PEARS.  349 

Claret-wine. — Apple-juice,  50  quarts ;  rectified  alcohol,  4  quarts ; 
black  currant-juice,  2  quarts ;  tartar,  2  ounces,  4  drachms.  Color 
with  bilberry-juice.  The  further  process  is  the  same  as  for 
Burgundy. 

Diseases  of  cider. — Ciders  are  subject  to  diseases  which  may  be 
due  to  the  bad  quality  of  the  apples  used,  a  faulty  method  of 
fabrication,  or  bad  management  in  the  cellar. 

Badly  fermented  cider,  especially  such  as  has  merely  passed 
through  the  stage  of  tumultuous  fermentation,  or  has  been  acidi- 
fied by  contact  with  the  air,  is  liable  to  produce  serious  disorders. 
The  first,  says  Dr.  E.  Decaisne,  being  heavy  and  indigestible, 
inflates  the  intestines  and  produces  diarrhoea ;  the  second,  though 
of  a  sweet  taste  and  a  piquant  and  agreeable  flavor,  does  not 
quench  the  thirst,  but  excites  the  nervous  system  and  produces 
flatulency ;  the  third,  which  is  really  spoiled  cider,  causes  inflam- 
mation of  the  intestines  by  the  large  amount  of  malic  and  acetic 
acids  it  contains.  When  in  the  fabrication  of  cider,  water  con- 
taining organic  matter  has  been  used,  putrid  fermentation  is 
produced  in  the  mass,  the  products  of  which  impart  some  very 
deleterious  properties  to  the  cider. 

Acidity  in  cider  may  be  due  either  to  an  excess  of  malic  acid 
or  of  acetic  acid. 

Some  ciders  contain  too  much  malic  acid  when  manufactured 
from  apples  not  sufficiently  ripe,  or  when,  in  mixing  the  apples, 
too  large  a  proportion  of  sour  apples  has  been  taken.  In  both 
these  cases  the  acidity  may  be  neutralized  by  adding  to  the  apple- 
juice  3  ounces,  8  drachms  of  potassium  tartrate  per  22  gallons. 
Sometimes  there  is  an  excess  of  acetic  acid,  due  to  the  oxidation 
of  the  alcohol  by  long  contact  with  the  air.  This  defect  is  diffi- 
cult to  remedy;  it  might  have  been  prevented  by  means  of  a  thin 
coat  of  olive  oil,  as  previously  mentioned,  or  by  hermetically 
closing  the  bungs.  The  acidity  will,  however,  disappear  by 
putting  in  the  bottles  a  pinch  of  bicarbonate  of  soda.  It  must, 
however,  be  done  immediately  on  detecting  the  defect. 

Viscosity  or  greasy  appearance  of  cider  is  recognized  by  the 
cider  becoming  stringy,  viscous,  and  greasy,  and  is  due  to  too 
great  an  abundance  of  gummy  substances  in  the  fruit,  a  lack  of 
tannin,  and,  finally,  to  defective  fermentation.  In  order  to  check 


350  VINEGAR,    CIDER,    AND   FRUIT-WINES. 

this  malady  from  its  first  appearance,  add  to  every  228  quarts  1 
pint  of  alcohol  or  2  grammes  of  catechu  dissolved  in  3  quarts 
of  water.  Cider  may  also  be  prevented  from  turning  viscous  by 
the  addition  of  sugar  to  the  juice  when  it  comes  from  the  press, 
which  promotes  fermentation. 

The  cause  of  cider  turning  black  is  an  excess  of  oxide  of  iron 
which,  on  coming  in  contact  with  air,  becomes  a  peroxide  and 
gives  the  beverage  a  brown  color.  The  oxide  of  iron  has  been 
introduced  into  the  cider  either  by  the  water  used  in  its  fabrica- 
tion, or  by  fruit  grown  on  ferruginous  soil.  By  mixing  such 
cider  with  12  drachms  of  powdered  oak-bark  per  22  gallons,  a 
quantity  of  tannin  is  introduced  which  combines  with  the  iron 
salt  to  an  insoluble  product  that  settles  on  the  bottom  of  the 
barrel.  Tartaric  acid  may  also  be  used. 

Turbidity  or  lack  of  clarification  of  cider  is  caused  by  too  small 
a  quantity  of  sugar  in  the  juice,  or  by  imperfect  fermentation. 

In  rainy  seasons  the  apples  ripen  imperfectly  and  contain  but 
little  sugar.  Cider  prepared  from  such  fruit  generally  remains 
turbid.  During  seasons  in  which  abrupt  changes  of  temperature 
take  place,  and  also  when  cold  weather  sets  in  very  early,  fer- 
mentation does  not  progress  well,  and  clarification  is  imperfect. 
When  the  cider  remains  turbid  after  the  first  racking  off,  add  a 
solution  of  2  pounds  of  sugar  in  1  gallon  of  water  to  every  132 
gallons  of  the  liquid ;  this  sugar  becomes  converted  into  alcohol 
and  renders  the  cider  limpid.  The  use  of  lead  salt,  formerly  much 
employed  in  Normandy,  is  very  dangerous;  persons  drinking  the 
cider  thus  adulterated  feel  sharp  pains  in  the  abdominal  region, 
which  present  all  the  symptoms  of  lead  colic,  and  may  prove  fatal. 

An  admixture  of  lead  salt  is  readily  recognized.  Add  to  the 
cider  a  solution  of  potassium  iodide,  if  lead  salt  be  present  a  yel- 
low precipitate  of  iodide  of  lead  will  be  formed. 

Adulteration  of  cider.— Cider  is  but  little  subject  to  adultera- 
tion according  to  most  of  the  authorities  on  food.  Even  Hassall, 
who  generally  enumerates  under  each  article  of  food  a  list  of 
every  conceivable  adulteration  that  has  ever  been  found  or  sup- 
posed to  have  been  used  in  such  food,  only  speaks  of  the  addition 
of  water,  of  burnt  sugar  as  a  coloring  matter,  and  of  the  use  of 
antacids  for  the  correction  of  the  acidity  of  spoiled  cider.  On  the 


CIDER    FROM   APPLES   AND   PEARS.  351 

other  hand,  in  France,  where,  as  previously  mentioned,  the  con- 
sumption of  cider  is  very  large,  its  adulteration  is  by  no  means 
uncommon.  Dr.  Bremont,  in  his  address  at  the  inauguration 
banquet  of  the  cider  exhibition,  at  Paris,  in  1888  said  :  "  People 
in  Paris  who  have  never  travelled  do  not  know  what  good  cider 
is.  The  stuff  sold  as  such  at  the  bars  and  wine-shops  here  is 
simply  abominable.  A  few  years  ago,  it  is  true,  it  was  possible 
•to  obtain  good  cider  in  Paris,  because  the  demand  for  it  was  very 
small.  Since,  however,  the  wine  sold  became,  in  consequence  of 
the  phylloxera  and  the  greed  of  the  wine  dealers,  both  very  dear 
and  very  bad,  the  poorer  classes  took  to  drinking  cider  instead  of 
wine,  because  it  was  much  cheaper  and,  at  that  time,  pure.  The 
demand  set  the  adulterators  at  work  and  increased  the  price  of 
the  drink.  Cider  now  costs  12  cents  a  quart  in  every  wine-shop, 
and  in  one  case  out  of  twenty  it  is  pure  and  unadulterated.  In 
most  cases  it  is  a  filthy  effusion  of  water  poured  on  apples,  sweet- 
ened with  glucose  and  strengthened  with  vile  alcohol." 

The  above  statement  is  fully  confirmed  by  the  report  of  the 
Paris  municipal  laboratory.  Besides  the  washings  of  the  dregs 
or  residue,  and  watering,  which  is  almost  generally  practised,  some 
coloring  matters  are  added ;  salicylic  acid  and  sulphites  are  also 
used  to  insure  its  keeping  while  in  course  of  transportation,  and 
an  excess  of  acidity  is  covered  by  means  of  lime  or  of  carbonate 
of  soda.  Brandies  of  inferior  quality  are  added  in  order  to  cor- 
rect the  flavor,  and,  as  already  stated,  \vhite  lead  has  been  used 
to  overcome  an  excess  of  acidity.  Finally  a  frequent  falsification 
is  the  fabrication  of  cider  from  apples  crushed  and  dried  by  heat 
and  starch-syrup.  Of  63  samples  examined  in  1881,  in  the 
municipal  laboratory,  39  were  pronounced  "  bad,"  among  which 
were  26  artificially  colored;  in  1882,  59  samples  were  examined 
of  which  30  were  declared  "bad,"  of  which  7  samples  were  arti- 
ficially colored  ;  2  samples  contained  salicylic  acid.  The  follow- 
ing is  considered  in  the  municipal  laboratory  as  a  minimum  limit 
for  the  composition  of  a  pure  cider  and  any  sample  which  falls 
below  it  in  any  constituent  is  considered  as  watered  : — 

Alcohol,  per  cent,  by  volume    .....       3.00 
Extracts,  in  grammes  per  liter  ....     18.00 

Ash  .  .1.7 


352  VINEGAR,   CIDER,    AND    FRUIT-WINES. 

This  is  for  11  completely  fermented  cider ;  in  sweet  eiders  the 
content  of  sugar  should  exceed  the  limit  sufficiently  to  make  up 
for  the  deficiency  of  alcohol,  to  which  it  should  be  calculated. 

Tn  the  samples  of  American  ciders  investigated  by  the  United 
States  Agricultural  Department  (sec  p.  W2)  it  was  fully  expected 
to  find  a  considerable  number  preserved  with  antiseptics.  This 
supposition  failed  to  be  confirmed,  however,  for  no  salicylic  acid 
was  found,  and  in  but  one  case  was  any  test  obtained  for  sul- 
phites. None  of  the  samples  fell  below  the  standard  proposed 
by  the  French  chemists,  given  above,  and  no  metallic  or  other 
adulteration  was  discovered. 

There  was,  however,  a  single  exception,  No.  4927  in  the  table 
of  analyses  (p.  :i°>2),  which  was  an  embodiment  in  itself  of  nearly 
all  the  adulterations  which  have  been  enumerated  as  possible  in 
cider.  It  was  handsomely  put  up  in  neatly  capped  bottles,  and 
was  of  a  clear,  bright  color.  Its  tremendous  "head"  of  gas  when 
uncorked  gave  rise  at  once  to  the  suspicion  that  it  had  received 
some  addition  to  produce  an  artificial  pressure  of  gas.  The  low 
content  of  free  acid,  together  with  the  large  amount  of  ash  and  a 
very  variable  content  of  carbonic  acid  in  different  bottles,  estab- 
lished the  fact  that  bicarbonate  of  soda  had  been  added,  probably 
a  varying  quantity  to  each  bottle,  while  the  dose  of  sulphites 
added  was  so  large  that  a  bottle  has  stood  open  in  the  laboratory 
all  through  the  summer  without  souring. 

Manufacture  of  brandy  from,  elder. — Brandy  is  a  mixture  of 
water  and  alcohol  produced  by  the  distillation  of  a  fermented 
liquor  ;  it  owes  its  aroma  to  the  essential  oil  peculiar  to  the  sub- 
stances subjected  to  distillation. 

In  Normandy  the  heavy  ciders  only  are  distilled,  ?'.  <?.,  those 
containing  the  most  alcohol. 

In  years  when  there  is  an  abundant  crop  of  apples,  it  will  gen- 
erally be  found  of  advantage  to  distill  the  eider  made  from  fallen 
fruit  and  also  from  early  apples.  The  cider  yielded  by  them  does 
not  keep  well  and  brings  a  very  low  price,  especially  when  there 
is  a  large  product  from  late  apples. 

Sour  ciders  should  not  be  distilled,  they  being  better  utilized 
for  the  manufacture  of  vinegar.  Spoiled  cider,  as  a  rule,  makes 
bad  brandy. 

Different  qualities  of  cider  should  be  distilled  separately  ;  a 


CIDER   FROM   APPLES   AND   PEARS.  353 

skilful  distiller  can  classify  them  by  the  taste  and  separates  them 
in  order  to  obtain  brandy  of  first  and  second  qualities. 

The  cider  is  distilled  when  it  is  completely  fermented,  •/.  e., 
when  the  largest  possible  quantity  of  sugar  has  been  converted 
into  alcohol.  Cider  from  early  apples  generally  ferments  faster 
than  that  from  late  apples  and  can  be  distilled  towards  the  end  of 
December,  i.  e.,  from  six  weeks  to  two  months  after  its  fabrication. 
Cider  from  late  apples,  made  during  December  and  January,  is 
ready  for  distillation  three  or  four  months  later,  i.  e.t  in  March  or 
April. 

Preparation  of  the  juice  for  distillation.  —  When  there  is  an 
abundant  crop  of  apples  and  barrels  are  scarce,  the  juice  as  it 
comes  from  the  press  is  brought  into  large  open  vats  in  which 
fermentation  progresses  rapidly,  but  in  this  case  some  beer  yeast 
previously  mixed  with  a  small  quantity  of  cider  is  added  to  each 
vat  and  the  temperature  must  be  maintained  between  59°  and 
68°  F.  Under  these  conditions  the  juice  ferments  very  promptly 
and  may  be  distilled  eight  or  ten  days  later. 

Sometimes  the  whole  of  the  pulpy  mass  obtained  by  grinding 
the  apples  is  submitted  to  distillation.  In  order  to  accelerate 
fermentation  a  small  quantity  of  hot  water  containing  some  sugar 
in  solution  is  added  to  the  mass,  also  one  or  two  thousandths  of 
sulphuric  acid,  the  latter  regulating  the  progress  of  fermentation. 

Fermentation  being  finished  the  mass  is  subjected  to  distillation. 
In  order  to  prevent  the  mass  from  adhering  to  the  still  and 
burning,  distillation  must  be  conducted  as  slowly  as  possible  and 
a  small  quantity  of  straw  placed  upon  the  bottom  of  the  still,  or, 
better,  a  piece  of  cloth  to  prevent  direct  contact  of  the  mass  with 
the  heating  surface. 

Plums,  damsons,  etc.,  are  also  subjected  to  distillation  and  pro- 
duce good  brandy  ;  they  ferment  more  slowly  than  wild  cherries 
which  produce  the  well-known  cherry-bounce.  Attention  may 
here  be  called  to  the  distillation  of  wild  plums,  which  should  be 
gathered  in  the  fall  when  the  leaves  begin  to  drop.  Some  con- 
noisseurs consider  brandy  made  from  plums  equal  to  that  from 
cherries.  On  a  farm  no  fruit  containing  sugar  should  go  to  waste 
as  it  can  be  converted  either  into  brandy  or  vinegar. 

Distillation.  —  For  distilling  cider  on  a  small  scale  no  expensive 


^  V  ,  li 


354  VINEGAR,   CIDER,    AND   FRUIT-WINES. 

apparatus  is  necessary,  an  ordinary  still  answering  all  require- 
ments. Cider  is  distilled  like  wine.  The  still  is  filled  about  j  full 
and  after  placing  the  head  in  position  the  joints  are  carefully  luted 
by  pasting  strips  of  cloth  or  even  paper  over  them.  The  tub  hold- 
ing the  worm  is  filled  with  cold  water  and  the  fire  started.  The 
vapors  escaping  from  the  boiling  liquid  condense  in  the  worm  and 
run  into  the  receiver.  Heating  should  be  done  slowly  in  order  to 
vaporize  as  little  water  as  possible  and  especially  to  avoid  sudden 
ebullition  as  the  boiling  liquid,  getting  into  the  head,  would  pass 
through  the  worm  and  become  mixed  with  the  liquor  already 
distilled  ;  in  such  an  event  it  would  be  necessary  to  begin  distilla- 
tion anew.  The  operation  is  continued  until  the  liquid  produced 
contains  hardly  any  alcohol  which  can  be  ascertained  by  the  use 
of  the  alcoholometer  or  by  the  taste.  It  is  unnecessary  to  say 
that  care  must  be  had  to  constantly  renew  and  keep  cold  the 
water  in  the  tub  holding  the  worm. 

Distillation  being  finished  the  boiler  is  emptied  and  after 
thorough  cleansing  is  refilled  for  a  second  operation. 

The  liquid  produced  by  successive  distillations  is  mixed  together 
and  brought  into  the  still  a  second  time,  whereby  a  liquor  richer  in 
alcohol  and  of  a  better  taste  is  produced.  It  would  be  desirable 
if  this  second  distillation  or  rectification  could  be  effected  by 
means  of  steam.  This  would  prevent  the  empyreumatic  taste 
which  is  often  noticed  in  apple-brandy.  The  first  and  last  runs 
of  the  still  being  of  inferior  quality  are  collected  separately  and 
poured  back  into  the  still  when  refilling  for  the  next  operation. 

Calculations  have  been  made  to  establish  by  means  of  figures 
the  immense  advantage  offered  in  a  financial  point  of  view  by 
the  distillation  of  cider.  These  theoretical  calculations  are,  how- 
ever, frequently  very  deceptive.  If,  on  the  one  hand,  the  producer 
knows  the  content  of  alcohol  of  his  cider  and,  on  the  other,  the 
market  value  of  the  alcohol  and  of  the  cider,  it  will  be  easy  for 
him  to  decide  which  product  will  pay  him  best. 

Pear-cider. — The  manufacture  of  pear-cider  is  very  limited 
and  no  great  future  can  be  promised  for  it,  as  even  when  most 
carefully  prepared,  it  is  far  inferior  to  cider  and  other  fruit-wines. 
Its  fabrication  is  best  understood  in  England,  and  how7  little  it  is 
appreciated  there  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  three-fourths  of  the 


CIDER   FROM    APPLES    AND    PEARS.  355 

quantity  manufactured  is  consumed  by  the  farm-laborers.  But 
any  one  who  has  large  pear  crops  at  his  disposal  and  wishes  to 
use  a  portion  of  them  for  the  manufacture  of  a  beverage  should 
add  to  the  pear-must  one-quarter  its  quantity  of  must  of  bitter- 
sweet apples  or  a  few  quarts  of  black  currant  juice,  which  will 
improve  the  taste  of  the  cider  and  its  keeping  qualities.  The 
mode  of  preparation  is  the  same  as  for  apple-cider,  though  still 
greater  care  must  be  exercised  in  the  choice  of  the  raw  material. 
The  pears  must  have  a  sufficient  content  of  sugar  as  otherwise 
the  cider  would  not  be  sufficiently  rich  in  alcohol  and  at  the  same 
time  they  must  contain  a  bitter  substance  to  prevent  the  cider 
from  turning  sour  as  soon  as  the  conversion  of  the  sugar  is 
effected.  Hence  the  use  of  fine  table  pears  for  the  preparation 
of  cider  would  be  simply  a  waste  of  material.  The  only  varie- 
ties suitable  for  the  purpose  are  those  which  when  eaten  from  the 
tree  produce  a  long  continued  sharp  heat  in  the  throat  and  lie 
half  a  day  undigested  in  the  stomach  which,  however,  become 
sweet  by  long  storing  and  lose  enough  of  their  acerbity  to  be  no 
longer  disagreeable  to  the  palate.  In  England  the  wild  pear 
grown  in  hedges  is  generally  used  for  the  purpose.  They  must 
be  ripe  but  not  soft  or  mellow. 

In  the  northern  part  of  France  pear-must  is  sometimes  used 
for  the  preparation  of  "  port-wine,"  the  taste  of  which  is  very 
much  praised.  The  process  consists  in  heating  50  Ibs.  of  must  to 
176°  or  185°  F.  and  adding  5  Ibs.  of  raisins.  At  this  degree  of 
heat  must  and  raisins  are  brought  into  a  barrel  which  is  tightly 
bunged  and  placed  in  a  cool  place.  When  in  the  course  of  a  day 
the  must  is  cooled  to  59°  or  68°  F.,  the  raisins,  which  are  gene- 
rally put  in  a  bag,  are  taken  from  the  barrel  and  after  bruising 
returned  (but  not  inclosed  in  the  bag)  to  the  must,  which  is  then 
allowed  to  ferment  for  14  days.  The  wine  is  then  drawn  off  into 
stone  jugs  which  are  well  corked  and  sealed. 

Quince-wine. — A  very  spicy  wine  can  be  prepared  from  quinces 
in  the  following  simple  manner:  Place  the  quinces  for  a  few 
moments  in  hot  water  and  then  rub  them  with  a  cloth  to  remove 
the  down.  Next  'remove  the  cores  by  means  of  a  knife  or  in 
any  suitable  manner.  Now  pour  hot  water  over  the  quinces 
thus  prepared  and  boil  them  slowly  over  a  moderate  fire  until 


356  VINEGAR,   CIDER,    AND   FRUIT-WINES. 

soft.  Then  press  out  the  juice  and  add  white  sugar  in  the  pro- 
portion of  1J  Ibs.  to  every  20  Ibs.  of  fruit.  Allow  the  whole  to 
ferment  in  a  cool  room  and  from  time  to  time  add  some  sugar- 
water  during  the  process.  Clarification  and  racking  off  is  effected 
in  the  same  manner  as  with  cider. 


CHAPTER  XXVIII. 

FRUIT-WINES. 

a.  From  small  fruits. 

ONE  of  the  principal  objections  to  wine  from  small  fruits  is 
that  it  easily  turns;  this  can,  however,  be  overcome  by  adding, 
after  fermentation  is  finished,  5.64  drachms  of  salicylic  acid  to 
every  100  quarts.  By  increasing  the  dose  to  8.46  drachms  less 
sugar  can  be  added  to  the  must  which,  of  course,  makes  the 
beverage  poorer  in  alcohol.  A  saving  of  sugar  can  be  further 
effected  without  injury  to  the  keeping  quality  of  the  wine  by  a 
suitable  mixing  of  juices.  By  working,  for  instance,  the  juices  of 
currants,  or  of  raspberries  by  themselves,  a  considerable  addition 
of  sugar,  about  1  pound  per  quart,  has  to  be  made,  which  can, 
however,  be  reduced  one-half  by  mixing  with  a  juice  containing 
some  bitter  principle,  and  later  on  treating  the  wine  with  salicylic 
acid.  Thus  a  large  field  for  experimenting  is  opened  to  all,  and 
only  a  few  hints  will  here  be  given.  Raspberry -juice  should  be 
mixed  with  one-quarter  its  volume  of  blackberry-juice;  and  in 
the  preparation  of  currant-wine  it  is  especially  recommended  to 
use  four-fifths  of  red  to  one-fifth  of  black  currants,  the  wTine 
obtained  being  far  more  spicy  and  possessing  better  keeping 
qualities.  Moreover,  black  currants  used  within  limits  are  an  ex- 
cellent material  for  improving  the  flavor  of  almost  all  fruit-wines. 
The  flavor  and  keeping  qualities  of  fruit-wine  are  also  improved 
by  throwing  a  couple  of  handfuls  of  crushed  hazel-nuts  or  walnuts 
into  the  barrel,  and  also  by  the  addition  of  2  ounces,  3  drachms 
of  bitter  almonds,  the  peels  of  10  lemons,  3  ounces,  5  drachms 


FRUIT-WINES.  357 

of  cassia,  and  a  few  handfuls  of  bruised  wild  plums.  By  these 
means  wine  with  a  moderate  content  of  alcohol  acquires  a  strong 
taste,  while  its  keeping  quality  is  at  the  same  time  improved ; 
the  latter  can  also  be  effected  by  bringing  2  ounces,  3  drachms  of 
tartar  into  the  barrel  during  fermentation.  A  few  other  mixtures 
of  juices  may  be  mentioned.  Black berry-j nice  is  better  adapted 
to  ferment  by  itself  than  any  other  juice  from  small  fruits,  but 
by  the  addition  of  J-  to  J-  its  weight  or  its  volume  of  strawberry- 
juice  the  aroma  of  the  wine  is  greatly  improved.  Strawberry- 
juice  is  least  suitable  for  fermentation  by  itself,  and  should  be 
mixed  with  must  containing  a  bitter  principle;  the  addition  of 
^  of  the  volume  of  the  juice  of  the  Siberian  crab-apple  (Pyrus 
baccata)  can  be  highly  recommended  for  the  purpose,  it  being 
especially  suitable  for  improving  the  keeping  quality  of  fruit- 
wine.  The  juice  of  rhubarb  stems  may  be  added  to  that  of 
elderberries,  while  the  juice  of  gooseberries  is  suitable  for  mixing 
with  that  of  mulberries.  Moreover,  a  combination  of  several 
juices  may  also  be  used,  an  excellent  wine  being,  for  instance, 
prepared  from  equal  parts  of  blackberry,  raspberry,  currant,  and 
strawberry-juice,  with  an  addition  of  walnuts  as  given  above. 
In  the  receipts  for  the  different  varieties  given  below,  the  cus- 
tomary addition  of  sugar  for  unmixed  fermentation  and  the 
omission  of  salicylic  acid  is  retained ;  it  may,  however,  be  repeated 
that  with  the  assistance  of  these  means  the  cost  may  be  reduced 
one-half.  In  order  to  avoid  repetition  the  following  general  rules 
are  here  given  which  hold  good  not  only  for  the  preparation  of 
wine  from  small  fruits,  but  also  from  stone-fruits. 

The  fruit  to  be  used  should  be  sound  and  ripe,  though  not 
over-ripe,  and  must  be  freed  from  adhering  dirt  by  washing  in 
warm  water.  Large  quantities  are  best  expressed  by  means  of 
a  press  while  for  small  quantities  a  bag  of  coarse  linen  is  sufficient 
which  is  kneaded  and  squeezed  until  no  more  juice  runs  out. 
Over  the  residue  pour  as  much  hot  water  as  juice  is  obtained  and 
after  allowing  it  to  stand  for  two  hours  press  again  and  mix  the 
juice  obtained  with  the  first.  Now  add  sugar  in  the  proportion 
of  one  pound  to  a  quart  of  juice  and  bring  the  whole  into  a 
thoroughly  cleansed  barrel  previously  rinsed  out  with  salicylated 
water.  Fermentation  should  take  place  in  a  room  having  a  uni- 


358  VINEGAR,    CIDER,   AXD   FRUIT-WINES. 

form  temperature  of  from  59°  to  64°  F.  During  this  process 
lav  a  piece  of  gauze  upon  the  open  bunghole  and  secure  it  by 
means  of  a  stone,  piece  of  iron,  etc. ;  this  prevents  the  access  of 
foreign  substances  to  the  must.  Every  other  day  the  barrel  is 
filled  up  to  the  bung-hole  with  sugar-water  prepared  in  the  pro- 
portion of  J  Ib.  of  sugar  to  1  quart  of  water.  As  soon  as  the 
"  hissing'7  in  the  barrel  ceases  bung  the  barrel  tightly  and  after 
14  days  draw  off  the  contents  into  another  barrel  placed  in  the 
same  room.  After  6  months  the  wine  can  be  drawn  off  into 
bottles,  being,  however,  8  days  previously  clarified  with  the  whites 
of  a  dozen  eggs  or  1  oz.  of  isinglass  slowly  dissolved  over  a 
moderate  fire  in  1  pint  of  wine.  Whatever  fining  is  used  add  it 
to  the  wine  with  constant  stirring.  If  salicylic  acid  is  to  be  used 
it  is  best  done  in  the  manner  described  for  cider  when  the  wine 
has  acquired  the  desired  degree  of  ripeness.  The  bottles  should 
be  rinsed  with  salicylated  water  and  closed  with  corks  previously 
soaked  for  a  few  hours  in  hot  salicylated  water.  Sealing  the 
bottles  is  not  necessary  but  in  order  to  be  sure  that  the  corks  fit 
closely  shake  each  bottle,  with  the  neck  downwards,  with  the  right 
hand  holding  the  left  under  the  cork.  If  the  slightest  moisture  is 
observed,  the  bottles  must  be  recorked,  as  carelessness  in  this 
respect  may  cause  a  portion  of  the  supply  of  wine  to  spoil.  The 
corked  bottles  are  laid  in  the  cellar. 

This  general  method,  according  to  which  all  kinds  of  wine  from 
small  fruits  can  be  prepared,  may  be  supplemented  by  the  follow- 
ing receipts: — 

Currant-wine. — Among  all  varieties  of  berries  the  currant 
contains  the  largest  quantity  of  free  acid,  about  2  per  cent.,  and 
comparatively  little  sugar,  about  6  per  cent.  The  proportion 
between  these  two  principal  constituents -is  very  unfavorable  for 
the  manufacture  of  wine,  and  currant  juice  fermented  by  itself 
would  yield  a  product  which  does  not  deserve  that  name. 

Free  the  thoroughly  ripe  currant  from  the  stems  and  after 
crushing  press  out  the  juice.  To  the  residue  add  twice  or  three 
times  as  much  water  as  juice  obtained  and  after  again  pressing 
add  the  juice  obtained  to  the  first.  Now  examine  the  juice  as 
to  its  content  of  acid  and  if  necessary  dilute  further  with  water. 
Then  calculate  the  sugar  in  the  manner  given  on  p.  326.  Sugar 


FRUIT- WINES.  359 

and  acid  having  been  brought  to  the  right  proportion,  the  juice  is 
allowed  to  ferment. 

Currant-wine  is  frequently  prepared  as  a  sweet  liqueur-wine, 
the  following  directions  being  much  used  for  the  purpose  :  Juice 
100  parts,  water  200,  sugar  100.  According  to  an  analysis  by 
Fresenius,  the  wine  thus  prepared  showed  after  two  years  the 
following  composition  : — 

Alcohol  ....... 

Free  acid  ....... 

Sugar  ....... 

Water 

100.00 

According  to  another  receipt,  17^  Ibs.  of  thoroughly  ripe  cur- 
rants freed  from  the  stems  are  bruised  in  a  wooden  vessel  Avith 
the  addition  of  3J  quarts  of  water.  The  paste  thus  obtained  is 
gradually  brought  into  a  bag  of  coarse  linen,  which  is  laid  upon 
an  oblique  board,  and  pressed  out  by  means  of  a  rolling-pin. 
The  press-residues  are  returned  to  the  wooden  vessel  and,  after 
adding  7  quarts  of  water,  thoroughly  worked  with  a  pestle,  and 
then  again  pressed  in  the  above  manner.  The  juice  thus  ob- 
tained is  brought  into  a  barrel  having  a  capacity  of  34J  quarts, 
a  solution  of  12  Ibs.  of  sugar  in  14  quarts  of  water  is  then  added, 
and  finally  sufficient  water  to  fill  up  the  barrel  to  within  3  inches 
of  the  bung.  After  covering  the  bung-hole  with  a  piece  of 
gauze,  the  whole  is  allowed  to  ferment  in  a  room  having  a  tem- 
perature of  from  59°  to  64°  F.  When  the  principal  fermenta- 
tion is  over  the  barrel  is  entirely  filled  with  water  and  closed 
with  a  cotton  bung.  The  wine  is  then  allowed  to  further  fer- 
ment for  6  months  in  a  cellar  having  a  temperature  of  from  54° 
to  59°  F.,  when  it  is  drawn  off  into  another  barrel  or  into  bottles. 
By  adding  to  the  fermenting  juice  ^  Ib.  of  comminuted  raisin 
stems  a  product  closely  resembling  Tokay-wine  is  obtained. 

A  very  strong  beverage  is  obtained  by  adding  to  the  expressed 
juice  of  currants  twice  the  quantity  of  water  and  stirring  in  2 
tablespoonfuls  of  yeast.  Allow  the  juice  to  ferment  for  2  days, 
then  strain  it  through  a  hair-sieve,  and  after  adding  1  Ib.  of  sugar 
for  every  quart,  allow  it  to  ferment.  When  fermentation  is  nearly 
finished  add  French  brandy  in  the  proportion  of  1  quart  to  40 


3t>0  VINEGAR,    CIDER,    AND    FRUIT- WINES. 

quarts  of  the  juice,  and  bung  up  the  barrel  two  days  later.  The 
wine  is  ripe  in  four  months. 

According  to  another  receipt  the  currants,  separated  from  the 
stems,  are  pressed  and  the  juice  mixed  with  an  equal  quantity  of 
water.  Then  add  to  each  gallon  of  liquid  2  J  Ibs.  of  sugar,  2  ozs. 
of  cream  of  tartar,  and  1  oz.  of  pulverized  nutmegs,  with  1  quart 
of  alcohol.  Allow  the  whole  to  ferment,  then  fine  with  isinglass, 
draw  off  and  bottle. 

Another  method  is  to  express  all  the  juice  possible,  then  take 
an  equal  amount  of  boiling  water,  and  pour  on  the  pressed  fruit ; 
let  it  stand  for  2  hours,  squeeze  out  as  much  as  there  is  of  juice 
and  mix ;  then  add  4  Ibs.  of  brown  sugar  to  each  gallon  of  the 
mixture ;  let  it  stand  for  3  or  4  weeks,  until  fairly  worked,  with 
the  bung  out,  and  when  it  is  done  working,  bung  it  up,  then 
place  it  in  a  cool  cellar. 

Strawberry-wine. — For  the  preparation  of  wine  very  fragrant 
strawberries  should  be  selected.  The  aroma  of  the  strawberry  is 
so  delicate  that  it  readily  undergoes  a  change  and  soon  disappears 
entirely.  Hence  to  secure  it  and  transfer  it  into  the  juice  the 
strawberry  requires  special  treatment,  whereby  neither  the  con- 
tent of  acid  nor  that  of  sugar  is  taken  into  consideration.  This 
treatment  consists  in  mixing  the  sound,  ripe  berries,  without  pre- 
vious crushing  or  bruising,  with  the  same  weight  of  pulverized 
sugar  and  allowing  the  mixture  to  stand  in  a  glass  or  stoneware 
vessel  in  a  cool  place  until  all  the  sugar  is  dissolved  to  a  clear 
syrup  in  which  the  shrunk  and  tasteless  berries  float.  To  sepa- 
rate the  latter,  strain  the  juice  through  a  woollen  cloth  previously 
rinsed  with  some  lemon-juice  or  tartaric  acid,  dilute  with  the 
same  quantity  of  water,  bring  the  acid  to  0.5  per  cent.,  and  sub- 
ject the  whole  to  fermentation  in  the  usual  manner  at  a  tempera- 
ture of  from  50°  to  59°  F. 

Some  allow  the  berries  to  ferment  with  the  juice,  but  the  wine 
obtained  is  somewhat  harsh  and  not  as  delicate. 

By  finally  adding  to  the  finished  wine  from  4  to  5  per  cent,  of 
rock-candy,  a  liqueur- wine  is  obtained  which,  as  regards  aroma, 
cannot  be  surpassed  and  is  especially  liked  by  ladies. 

Excellent  strawberry-wine  is  also  obtained  according  to  the 
following  directions :  Press  out  10  Ibs.  of  different  varieties  of 


FRUIT-WINES.  361 

small  and  large  cultivated  strawberries,  which  give  about  2^- 
quarts  of  juice.  Pour  water  over  the  residue  and  press  again,  so 
as  to  obtain  about  3  quarts  more  of  juice  or  a  total  of  5J  quarts. 
Xext  dissolve  4  pounds  of  rock-candy  in  5  quarts  of  cold  water, 
bring  the  solution,  together  with  the  5J  quarts  of  juice,  into  a 
small  cask,  and  allow  the  whole  to  ferment  in  a  cellar  having  a 
temperature  of  61°  F.  In  four  weeks  the  wine  is  ready  for  draw- 
ing off  into  bottles.  It  is  of  a  beautiful  pale  yellow  color  and 
possesses  an  excellent  bouquet,  and  if  made  sparkling  furnishes 
an  excellent  beverage. 

According  to  a  receipt  in  the  "  Weinzeituug,"  40  quarts  of 
strawberries  and  41  quarts  of  water,  with  an  addition  of  12  Ibs. 
of  sugar,  3  J  ozs.  of  tartar,  and  a  gallon  of  whiskey  free  from  fusel 
oil  are  allowed  to  ferment  and  the  resulting  wine  is  treated  in  the 
usual  manner. 

Another  method  is  to  pour  1  quart  of  hot  water  upon  1  quart 
of  crushed  strawberries  and  pressing  out  after  allowing  the  mass 
to  stand  for  2  days.  Then  add  to  every  quart  of  juice  1  Ib.  of 
sugar,  and  to  every  40  quarts  of  juice  the  grated  peel  and  juice 
of  2  lemons  and  2  oranges  and  4  quarts  of  French  brandy. 
Allow  the  whole  to  ferment,  and  treat  the  resulting  wine  in  the 
usual  manner. 

Gooseberry-wine. — The  proportion  between  sugar  and  acid  is 
somewhat  more  favorable  in  the  gooseberry  than  in  the  currant, 
but  not  sufficiently  so  as  that  the  pure  juice  would  yield  a  good 
wine  by  fermentation.  Hence  the  juice  must  be  converted  into 
suitable  must,  as  regards  sugar  and  acid,  in  accordance  with  the 
rules  given  on  p.  325.  The  yellow  varieties  are  preferable,  they 
alone  having  a  distinctly  vinous  taste ;  the  wine  obtained  from 
the  red  and  green  varieties  is  somewhat  insipid.  The  juice  is  ob- 
tained in  the  same  manner  as  from  currants,  the  berries  being 
bruised,  the  juice  allowed  to  run  off  and  the  residue  washed  sev- 
eral times  with  water,  so  that  each  volume  of  juice  receives  an 
addition  of  1  volume  of  water,  though  as  the  mixed  juice  has  to 
be  tested  as  to  its  content  of  acid,  the  direction  in  regard  to  the 
addition  of  water  need  not  be  accurately  followed.  The  must 
may  contain  as  much  as  30  per  cent.,  because  the  fermentation 
of  gooseberry-must  is  generally  carried  on  in  the  warmer  season 


362  VINEGAR,    CIDER,    AND    FRUIT- WINES. 

of  the  year,  so  that  all  or  the  greater  portion  of  the  sugar  fer- 
ments and  the  wine,  on  account  of  the  quantity  of  alcohol  formed, 
Avill  keep  for  an  almost  indefinite  time.  Gooseberry-wine  made 
from  must  rich  in  sugar  generally  acquires  by  age  an  odor  of 
Madeira-wine,  which  frequently  deceives  even  connoisseurs. 

Gooseberry-wine  like  currant-wine  being  liked  sweet,  a  larger 
quantity  of  sugar  may  be  added  to  the  must  from  the  start  though 
for  a  quicker  progress  of  fermentation  it  is  better  to  add  the 
desired  quantity  of  sugar  to  the  fermented  wine;  if  the  must  has 
been  made  quite  sweet  so  that  a  wine  rich  in  alcohol  is  formed  no 
fear  need  be  had  of  the  wine  fermenting  anew  on  account  of  the 
addition  of  sugar. 

There  are  a  number  of  receipts  for  the  preparation  of  gooseberry- 
wine,  but  when  more  closely  examined  the  products  prepared 
according  to  them  will  be  found  either  more  or  less  rich  in  alcohol 
or  to  contain  more  or  less  free  acid  and  be  either  sweet  or  not 
sweet,  so  that  the  proportion  can  evidently  be  changed  in  any 
manner  desired.  It  is  further  evident  that  nothing  is  gained 
thereby  as  regards  quality,  because  the  type  for  all  artificial  wines 
is  grape-wine  obtained  in  a  good  season.  In  such  wines  the  pro- 
portions between  alcohol  and  free  acid  are  well  known  and  within 
such  narrow  limits  that  they  cannot  be  essentially  exceeded  on 
either  side,  and  they  alone  can  serve  as  a  basis  for  the  rational  prepa- 
ration of  gooseberry-wine  as  well  as  of  all  artificial  wines.  With 
the  aroma  or  bouquet  which  is  to  be  imparted  to  such  wine  it 
is,  of  course,  different,  but  no  special  directions  are  required  as 
every  one  manages  it  according  to  his  own  taste  or  according 
to  that  of  those  who  buy  and  drink  the  wine.  Thus,  it  is  also 
with  the  addition  of  sugar;  one  likes  a  sweet  wine,  the  other  one 
less  sweet  and  the  third  one  without  any  sugar.  The  principle 
aim  is  to  prepare  a  wine  which  contains  the  necessary  quantity  of 
alcohol  to  insure  its  keeping  properly,  and  the  power  of  resistance 
against  decomposing  influences  and  from  which  the  greater  por- 
tion of  the  fermenting  substances  is  removed  by  fermentation. 
In  most  cases  the  natural  conditions  are  of  great  use  in  this  respect, 
for  in  order  to  decrease  the  content  of  free  acid  it  becomes  neces- 
sary to  dilute  the  fruit  juices  whereby  the  quantity  of  fermenting 
substances  is  also  relatively  decreased,  and  sometimes  even  to  such 


FRUIT-WINES.  363 

an  extent  that  they  do  not  suffice  for  the  complete  fermentation  of 
the  sugar.  Such  wine,  if  not  wanting  in  alcohol,  will  keep  for  an 
almost  indefinite  time  and  may  be  exposed  to  the  access  of  air  and 
a  high  temperature  without  the  appearance  of  the  formation  of 
acetic  acid. 

Gooseberry-champagne. — The  taste  of  this  beverage  closely 
resembles  that  of  genuine  champagne.  There  are  several  modes 
of  its  fabrication.  In  France  a  light  wine  which  does  not  contain 
too  many  fermenting  substances  is  used.  Somewhat  less  than  2 
per  cent,  of  sugar,  or  about  15  grammes  to  a  bottle  of  800  cubic 
centimetres7  capacity,  is  dissolved  in  the  wine  and  the  latter  drawn 
off  into  strong  champagne  bottles  which  are  then  hermetically 
corked  and  tied  with  twine.  The  wine  is  then  allowed  to  fer- 
ment in  a  room  having  a  temperature  of  from  77°  to  99°  F. 
When  fermentation  is  finished,  the  bottles  are  brought  into  a  cool 
cellar  and  placed  first  horizontally  and  then  gradually  bottom 
uppermost  so  that  the  yeast  may  collect  on  the  cork  and  the  wine 
become  clear.  When  all  the  yeast  is  precipitated  to  the  neck  of  the 
bottle,  the  sediment  is  carefully  removed — degorgie  as  it  is  termed 
—by  first  raising  the  string  securing  the  cork  and  then  the  latter, 
the  bottle  being  held  in  a  horizontal  position.  The  cork  being  no 
longer  held  by  the  string  is  forced  out  together  with  the  deposit 
of  yeast  while  the  clear  wine  impregnated  with  carbonic  acid 
remains  behind.  To  prevent  the  unavoidable  loss  of  wine,  the 
cork  together  with  the  yeast  and  wine  forced  out  is  collected  in 
an  upright  barrel  with  a  large  aperture  towards  which  the  mouth 
of  the  bottle  is  held  during  the  operation. 

The  wine  thus  impregnated  with  carbonic  acid,  however,  is  not 
yet  champagne  ;  it  only  becomes  so  after  the  addition  of  a  solution 
of  fine  rock  candy  in  brandy  with  which  the  bottle  is  filled  up. 
Each  bottle  after  receiving  the  necessary  quantity  of  the  solution, 
or  liqueur  as  it  is  termed,  is  at  once  closed  with  a  cork  which  is 
secured  with  twine  or  wire.  Removing  the  deposit  of  yeast  is  the 
most  difficult  portion  of  this  operation,  long  experience  being 
required  before  the  workman  possesses  the  necessary  skill. 

According  to  another  method,  which  is  also  called  the  impreg- 
nating method,  the  sugar  required  for  sweetening  is  dissolved  in 
the  wine,  and  after  clarifying  the  solution  by  filtering  through 


364  VINEGAR,    CIDER,    AND   FRUIT-WINES. 

paper  pulp  in  a  bag,  or,  if  necessary,  with  some  isinglass,  it  is 
taken  to  the  impregnating  apparatus,  one  similar  to  that  used  for 
mineral  water  answering  the  purpose.  The  wine  is  then  saturated 
under  a  pressure  of  4J  to  5  atmospheres  with  the  desired  quantity 
of  carbonic  acid  and  at  once  drawn  off  into  bottles,  which  are 
corked  and  wired  as  above. 

The  advantage  of  this  method  consists  in  the  rapidity  with 
which  champagne  can  be  made,  30  to  36  months  being  required 
for  the  first  method  before  the  champagne  is  ready  for  transporta- 
tion. 

The  following  method  is  the  most  simple  of  all,  but  does  not 
yield  as  fine  a  product.  Each  bottle  is  finished  by  itself  and  no 
special  apparatus  is  required.  The  wine  is  sweetened  and  clari- 
fied in  the  same  manner  as  in  the  impregnating  method  and  then 
drawn  off  into  bottles.  In  case  the  wine  is  not  rich  enough  in 
alcohol,  the  content  of  the  latter  may  be  increased  by  10  per 
cent. 

After  having  filled  the  bottles  about  1.52  cubic  inches  less 
than  generally,  add  first  to  each  bottle  11  drachms  of  pure  crys- 
tallized bicarbonate  of  potash  and  immediately  afterwards  1  oz. 
of  pure  crystallized  tartaric  acid  in  pieces.  Then  close  the  bottle 
with  the  cork  and  secure  the  latter  by  tying  or  wiring  it  cross- 
wise. The  potash  and  acid  are  now  brought  to  solution  by  gently 
swinging  the  bottle  to  and  fro,  the  contents  becoming  at  the  same 
time  turbid  by  the  separation  of  bitartrate  of  potash.  By 
placing  the  bottle  bottom  upwards  the  separated  tartar  is  collected 
as  much  as  possible  upon  the  lower  surface  of  the  cork  and  after 
the  wine  is  clear  removed  in  the  same  manner  as  described  in  the 
first  method.  It  is  not  absolutely  necessary  to  remove  all  the  tar- 
tar as  it  settles  on  the  bottom  and  the  champagne  will  pour  out 
clear. 

According  to  any  of  these  methods  all  fruit-wines  can  be  con- 
verted into  champagne  or  sparkling  wines. 

Semler  gives  the  following  directions  for  the  preparation  of 
gooseberry-champagne.  Pour  20  quarts  of  warm  water  over  20 
quarts  of  crushed  gooseberries  and  add  6  Ibs.  of  sugar,  4J  Ibs.  of 
honey,  1  oz.  of  pulverized  tartar,  J  oz.  of  dried  lemon  peel,  and  J 
oz.  of  dried  orange  peel.  After  standing  for  two  days  strain  the 


FRUIT-WINES.  365 

mixture  through  a  hair-sieve  into  a  barrel  and  add  2  quarts  of 
French  brandy.  When  the  "  hissing"  in  the  barrel  ceases  clarify 
the  wine  and  after  a  few  days  draw  it  oif  into  bottles  securing  the 
corks  with  wire.  Before  filling  the  bottles  throw  a  piece  of  sugar 
and  J  drachm  of  bicarbonate  of  soda  into  each. 

Raspberry-wine. — Raspberries  have  such  an  agreeable  and  re- 
freshing taste  and  odor  that  while  they  are  not  very  sweet  and 
the  proportion  of  acid  to  sugar  is  not  very  favorable  they  are 
great  favorites.  Their  aroma  passes  into  the  wine  and  would  be 
even  too  predominant  if  for  the  preparation  of  wine  the  juice  had 
not  to  be  strongly  diluted  with  water  in  order  to  decrease  the 
acid. 

As  in  all  other  fruit,  the  quality  of  the  raspberry  depends  on 
the  weather,  and  when  this  is  favorable  during  the  time  of  the  de- 
velopment and  maturing  of  the  fruit,  the  latter  is  sweet  and  pala- 
table, but  in  cold  and  wet  seasons  sour  and  harsh.  No  other 
fruit  suffers  as  much  from  such  conditions  as  the  raspberry. 

We  have  the  wild  and  cultivated  raspberry.  The  wild  rasp- 
berry is  smaller  than  the  cultivated  but  possesses  a  stronger  aroma ; 
unfortunately  it  is  too  frequently  infested  with  the  larva  of  many 
insects  to  render  it  always  palatable.  The  cultivated  raspberry 
is  considerably  larger,  and  is  less  attacked  by  worms,  but  pos- 
sesses less  aroma  and  is  frequently  even  watery. 

To  obtain  the  juice  for  the  preparation  of  wine  the  thoroughly 
ripe  raspberries  are  crushed  to  a  paste  in  a  wooden  tub  by  means 
of  a  wooden  pestle.  To  separate  the  grains  the  paste  is  forced 
through  a  fine  wire  sieve,  which,  in  order  to  protect  it  from  the  acid, 
is  best  provided  with  a  coat  of  asphalt  or  shellac  varnish.  It  is, 
however,  no  disadvantage  to  allow  the  grains  to  ferment  with  the 
pulp,  some  tannin  being  thereby  introduced  into  the  wine  which 
under  certain  circumstances  may  be  even  desirable. 

The  content  of  acid  in  the  raspberry  varying  considerably  in 
different  years,  a  test  of  the  juice  in  this  respect  becomes  abso- 
lutely necessary  in  order  to  enable  one  to  dilute  it  in  the  correct 
proportion  with  water.  For  this  purpose  press  out  a  small 
quantity  of  the  crushed  raspberries  and  determine  the  acid  in  the 
manner  given  on  p.  325.  The  sugar  contained  in  the  raspberry 
need  not  be  taken  into  consideration,  since  by  dilution  it  is 


366  VINEGAR,    CIDER,    AND    FRUIT-WINES. 

reduced  to  1  per  cent,  and  still  less.  The  must  is  simply  brought 
up  to  25  per  cent,  of  fruit-sugar  and  allowed  to  ferment  in  the 
usual  manner.  The  treatment  of  the  wine  after  fermentation  is 
the  same  as  for  other  fruit-wines. 

Blackberry-wine  is  prepared  in  the  same  manner  as  raspberry- 
wine.  Of  the  numerous  directions  for  its  preparation  we  give  the 
following :  Gather  the  berries  on  a  dry  day,  crush  them  with  the 
hand  into  a  kettle,  and  add  just  enough  hot  water  to  cover  the 
mass.  Then  add  a  handful  of  bruised  raisins  and  a  handful  of 
strawberry  leaves,  from  the  heart  of  the  mother  plant,  or,  still 
better,  from  the  suckers,  and  allow  the  mass  to  stand  for  four  days, 
when  a  crust  of  yeast  will  have  formed  on  the  surface.  The  mass 
is  now  pressed  out  and  sugar  in  the  proportion  of  1  pound  to  every 
4  quarts  added.  Fermentation  is  allowed  to  go  on  for  two  weeks  ; 
the  barrel  is  then  bunged  up  and  the  wine  drawn  off  after  six 
months.  During  fermentation,  and  especially  in  the  beginning 
of  it,  care  must  be  had  to  fill  up  the  barrel. 

To  make  from  blackberries  a  beverage  resembling  port-wine 
the  following  method  is  recommended  :  Press  out  the  juice  and 
allow  it  to  stand  for  36  hours.  While  fermenting  during  this 
time  remove  all  scum  from  the  surface.  Now  add  one-fourth  the 
quantity  of  juice,  of  water,  and  3  pounds  of  brown  sugar  to 
every  4  quarts  of  fluid  and  filter  after  12  hours.  Fermentation, 
which  requires  but  a  few  days,  being  finished,  bung  up  the  barrel 
tightly  and  after  six  months  draw  off  the  wine.  The  latter  im- 
proves by  age. 

Mulberry-wine. — Press  the  juice  from  the  fruit,  dilute  with  the 
same  quantity  of  water,  add  1  pound  of  sugar  for  every  quart  of 
liquid,  and  boil  the  whole  J  hour.  Then  add  for  every  100 
quarts  3  quarts  of  alcohol,  6  J  ounces  of  tartar,  1  ounce  of  cassia, 
and  \  ounce  of  bruised  bitter  almonds,  and  allow  the  whole  to 
ferment.  The  further  treatment  of  the  wine  is  the  same  as  for 
other  fruit-wines. 

Elderberry-wine. — Boil  equal  quantities  of  berries  and  water 
one-half  hour,  pour  the  whole  into  a  hair-sieve,  press  the  pulpy 
portion  of  the  berries  gently  through  with  the  hand  and  remove 
the  residue.  Compound  the  strained  juice  with  sugar  in  the  pro- 
portion of  J  pound  to  1  quart  and  boil  20  minutes.  As  soon  as 


FRUIT- WINES.  3G7 

cool  bring  it  into  a  barrel  to  ferment.  Fermentation  being 
finished  paste  stiff  brown  paper  over  the  bung-hole,  and  after 
eight  weeks  draw  off  the  wine  into  bottles. 

Another  method  is  to  boil  50  quarts  of  water,  10  quarts  of 
elderberries,  40  pounds  of  sugar,  5  ounces  of  pulverized  ginger, 

and   2^  ounces  of  cloves  for  1   hour,  with  constant  skimming". 

-  & 

Then  bring  the  liquid  together  with  4  pounds  of  crushed  raisins 
into  a  barrel  and  allow  it  to  ferment.  At  the  termination  of  the 
fermentation  it  will  yield  a  wine  similar  to  the  Cypria  or  Greek- 
wine. 

Juniperberry-wine. — 70  quarts  of  water,  35  pounds  of  crushed 
raisins,  10  quarts  of  juniperberries,  4  ounces  of  tartar,  1  quart  of 
French  brandy,  and  a  handful  of  fresh  marjoram  leaves  are 
brought  into  a  barrel  and  the  mixture  is  allowed  to  ferment  for 
12  hours. 

Rhubarb-wine. — Add  to  every  5  pounds  of  the  thinly-sliced 
stalks  2|  quarts  of  soft  water  and  bring  the  whole  into  a  clean 
wooden  vessel.  Cover  the  latter  and  stir  the  contents  with  a 
wooden  stick  three  times  daily  for  one  week.  Then  pass  the  fluid 
through  a  wide-meshed  sieve  and  add  to  every  3  quarts  4  pounds 
of  white  sugar,  the  juice  of  2  lemons,  and  the  peel  of  1  lemon 
rubbed  upon  sugar.  Allow  the  mixture  to  ferment  in  a  barrel, 
and  after  clarifying  draw  the  wine  off  into  bottles  in  March. 

The  variety  of  rhubarb,  known  as  Victoria,  is  best  adapted 
for  the  preparation  of  wine  which  can  also  be  effected  according 
to  the  following  directions  :  Cut  up  the  stalks  and  express  the 
juice.  To  every  gallon  of  juice  add  1  gallon  of  soft  water  and  7 
pounds  of  brown  sugar.  Bring  the  mixture  into  a  barrel  and 
allow  it  to  ferment  until  clear  with  the  bung  out,  keeping  the 
barrel  filled  with  sweetened  water  as  it  works  over,  then  bung 
the  barrel  tightly  or  draw  the  wine  off  into  bottles.  It  makes  an 
agreeable  and  healthful  wine,  affording  a  good  profit,  as  nearly 
1800  gallons  of  wine  may  be  obtained  from  each  acre  of  well- 
cultivated  plants.  The  stalks  will  furnish  about  three-fourths 
their  weight  in  juice. 

Tomato-wine. — Press  out  the  juice  from  ripe  tomatoes,  add  to 
each  quart  of  it  1  pound  of  brown  sugar,  and  allow  the  whole  to 


368  VINEGAR,    CIDER,    AND    FRUIT-WINES. 

ferment.     After  three  months  the  wine  can  be  drawn  off  into 
bottles. 

Parsnip-wine. — Cut  12  pounds  of  parsnips  into  thin  pieces,  add 
15  quarts  of  water  and  boil  until  soft.  Then  press  out  the  juice 
and  after  straining  through  a  hair-sieve  sweeten  with  f  pound  of 
sugar  per  quart.  After  again  boiling  for  j  hour  it  is  brought, 
when  cold,  into  a  barrel  and  a  tablespoonful  of  yeast  is  added. 
Stir  the  juice  daily  for  10  days  then  bung  up  the  barrel  tightly 
and  after  six  months  draw  off  the  wine  into  bottles. 

In  the  same  manner  wine  may  be  prepared  from  carrots,  clover- 
heads,  corn-stalks,  etc.  It  is,  however,  recommended  to  add  to  the 
juice  some  aromatic  substance  such  as  a  handful  of  marjoram, 
almonds,  plum-kernels,  currants,  walnuts,  ginger,  or  still  better  a 
few  quarts  of  black  currant  juice. 

^ 
b.  From  Stone-Fruits. 

Cherry-wine. — Stone  sweet  cherries  and  after  crushing  the  pulp 
to  a  paste  allow  it  to  ferment  in  stoneware  pots  for  12  hours. 
Then  press  out  the  juice  which  is  returned  to  the  pots  and  allowed 
to  stand  until  yeast  fungi  rise  to  the  surface.  Now  add  1  pound 
of  sugar  to  every  3  quarts  of  must,  bring  the  latter  into  a  barrel 
and  allow  it  to  ferment  8  days.  Then  rack  the  wine  into  bottles 
and  keep  in  a  cool  place.  The  preceding  is  the  method  followed 
in  England  where  pure  cherry-wine  is  made.  It  may,  however, 
be  remarked  that  it  is  somewhat  insipid.  A  mixture  of  the  juice 
of  cherries  with  that  of  the  raspberry  or  currant  can,  however, 
be  highly  recommended,  it  yielding  a  beverage  similar  to  port- 
wine.  It  is  an  American  receipt  and  much  preferable  to  the 
English.  Press  the  freshly  gathered  cherries,  black  or  red,  but 
selecting  those  with  the  softest  pulp,  without  crushing  the  stones. 
To  the  juice  obtained  add  one-eighth  of  its  quantity  each  of  rasp- 
berry and  black  currant  juice  and  sweeten  with  lump  sugar  in 
the  proportion  of  1  pound  to  2J  quarts  of  juice.  The  whole  is 
then  brought  into  a  barrel  to  ferment.  When  fermentation  is 
finished  close  the  barrel  tight  and  allow  it  to  rest  for  three  months. 
Then  clarify  the  wine  and  draw  it  off  into  bottles.  It  is  fit  to 
drink  in  six  weeks. 


FRUIT-WINES.  369 

Morello-wine. — Press  60  pounds  of  morellos  so  as  to  crush  the 
stones,  mix  the  juice  obtained  with  20  quarts  of  sherry-wine  and 
the  same  quantity  of  warm  water,  and  bring  the  whole  into  a 
barrel  to  ferment.  Suspend  in  the  barrel  a  bag  containing  1J 
ounce  each  of  cinnamon,  powdered  nutmeg,  and  mace,  allowing 
it  to  remain  until  drawing  off  the  wine.  The  latter  is  very  pala- 
table in  two  months  after  fermentation  is  finished. 

Plum-ivine. — Not  all  varieties  of  plums  are  suitable  for  the 
preparation  of  wine,  but  the  Reine  Claude  and  Mirabelle  can  be 
highly  recommended,  the  latter  especially  making  as  spicy  and 
agreeable  wine  as  any  variety  of  fruit.  With  the  almost  innu- 
merable varieties  of  plums  it  is  not  possible  to  say  which  are  suita- 
ble for  the  preparation  of  wine,  and  which  are  not.  It  can  only 
be  determined  by  experiment,  though  right  sweet  varieties  only 
should  be  chosen.  In  this  country  the  small  sweet  variety  known 
as  the  wheat-plum,  etc.,  is  frequently  used  for  the  purpose.  The 
process  is  as  follows  :  Stone  the  plums,  then  bruise  the  pulp,  and 
add  to  every  8  pounds  of  the  latter  3  quarts  of  hot  water.  After 
2  days  press  out  the  juice  and  add  to  every  2  quarts  of  it  one 
pound  of  sugar.  Now  bring  the  juice  into  a  barrel  in  a  cool  room 
and  add  the  crushed  kernels  of  ^  of  the  stones.  Allow  the  whole 
to  ferment  completely.  After  12  months  the  wine  is  clarified  and 
drawn  oif  into  bottles,  each  of  which  receives  a  small  piece  of 
sugar,  which  improves  the  keeping  quality  of  the  wine. 

Apricot  and  peach-wines. — Both  these  varieties  are  used  when 
nearly  ripe.  Remove  the  stones  and  crush  the  pulp  to  a  paste. 
For  every  8  pounds  of  the  latter  add  1  quart  of  fresh  soft  water, 
and  let  the  mass  stand  24  hours.  Then  press  out  the  juice,  add 
for  every  2  quarts  of  it  1  pound  of  sugar,  and  allow  it  to  ferment. 
During  fermentation  it  is  recommended  to  throw  a  handful  of  the 
crushed  stones  into  the  barrel,  which  gives  to  the  product  a  more 
spicy  flavor. 

Sloe  or  wild  plum-wine. — This  beverage  is  not  to  be  despised  if 
prepared  in  the  manner  given  for  plum-wine.     The  sloes  must, 
however,  remain  on  the  bushes  until  after  the  first  frost,  which 
sweetens  them. 
24 


PART  III. 

CANNING  AND  EVAPORATING  OF  FRUIT,  MANUFAC- 
TURE OF  CATCHUPS,  FRUIT-BUTTERS,  MARMA- 
LADES, JELLIES,  PICKLES,  AND  MUSTARDS. 


CHAPTER   XXIX. 

PRESERVATION  OF  FRUIT. 

THE  use  of  hermetically  closed  tin  cans  is  the  only  method  for 
preserving  fruit  which  has  become  of  commercial  importance. 
Before  discussing  it,  the  various  ways  which  have  proved  more 
or  less  satisfactory  for  household  purposes  will  be  briefly  men- 
tioned. The  following  rules  apply,  however,  to  all  methods : — 

1.  The  fruit  must  be  gathered  in  dry  weather  and  when  free 
from  dew  ;  it  is  to  be  kept  as  free  from  dust  as  possible. 

2.  Absolutely  sound  fruit,  not  over-ripe,  should  only  be  se- 
lected. 

3.  The  fruit  should  be  preserved  immediately  after  gathering. 

4.  The  utensils  used  must  be  kept  scrupulously  clean. 

5.  The  preserving  vessels  should  not  be  placed  directly  upon 
the  fire. 

6.  A  good  quality  of  white  sugar  only  should  be  used ;  brown 
sugar  injures  the  taste  and  color  of  the  fruit. 

7.  Copper  or  brass  kettles  alone  should  be  used  for  boiling,  if 
the  latter  is  not  effected  in  glass  ;  the  spoons  should  be  of  wood  or 
of  bone. 

8.  The  jars  or  cans  should  be  thoroughly  rinsed  best  with  sali- 
cylated  water,  and  if  corks  are  to  be  used  they  should  be  perfectly 
sound  and  scalded  in  hot  water  to  which  some  salicylic  acid  has 
been  added. 

9.  Small  jars  or  cans  are  preferable  to  large  ones,  and  they 
should  be  kept  in  a  dark,  cool,  dry  place. 


372  VLNEGAR,   CIDER,    AND   FRUIT-WINES. 

We  will  first  mention  the  old  French  method,  known  as  au 
Baine-Marie,  which,  on  account  of  its  simplicity,  is  still  much 
used.  Berries  require  no  preparation,  but  peaches,  apricots,  and 
plums  must  be  stoned  and  halved,  and  cherries  and  small  plums 
stoned.  Apples  and  pears  are  peeled  and  quartered  and  imme- 
diately thrown  into  boiling  water  for  4  minutes  to  bleach.  They 
are  then  laid  a  few  minutes  upon  a  sieve  to  dry,  and  brought,  like 
other  fruit  by  means  of  a  spoon  into  wide-necked  glass  jars  which 
are  filled  to  within  2  inches  of  the  edge.  In  placing  the  fruit  in 
the  jar  press  it  well  together.  The  empty  space  is  then  filled  up 
with  hot  syrup  composed  of  2  parts  of  sugar  and  1  part  of  water, 
and  the  jars,  after  heating  them  somewhat  upon  a  stove,  are  placed 
in  boiling  water  for  8  minutes  for  kernel  fruit  and  for  10  minutes 
for  stone  fruit  or  berries.  The  jars  are  then  immediately  corked 
and  sealed. 

According  to  another  French  method,  the  flesh  of  the  fruit  is 
preserved  without  boiling.  Stone-fruits  and  berries  only  can  be 
used.  The  fruit  is  pressed  through  a  hair-sieve  and  the  pulp 
mixed  with  an  equal  weight  of  pulverized  sugar.  The  mixture 
is  then  brought  into  glass  bottles  which  are  corked  and  sealed. 
This  fruit-pulp  keeps,  however,  only  through  the  winter,  or  if 
kept  in  a  cold  place  or  in  a  refrigerator. 

The  following  method  gives  better  satisfaction  :  The  fruit,  such 
as  cherries,  berries,  plums,  peaches,  apricots,  etc.,  is,  without  the 
addition  of  water,  brought  into  wide-necked  glass  jars  in  such  a 
manner  that  a  layer  of  fruit  alternates  with  a  layer  of  sugar,  the 
top  layer  being  sugar.  The  jars  are  then  tied  up  with  salicylated 
parchment  paper,  placed  in  a  water-bath,  and  the  water  kept 
boiling  for  15  to  30  minutes,  according  to  the  variety  of  fruit, 
small  fruit  requiring  less  time  than  large,  and  berries  only  about 
15  minutes.  The  jars  are  then  stored  in  a  cool,  dark  place. 
For  closing  jars  with  narrow  mouths  corks  are  preferable.  They 
are  soaked  in  hot  salicylated  water  and  sealed. 

Fruit  thus  preserved  retains  its  fresh,  natural  appearance  and 
keeps  for  a  considerable  time.  If  appearance  is,  however,  of 
secondary  consideration,  it  is  better  to  boil  the  fruit,  as  is  done 
with  kernel-fruit,  melons,  and  all  large  varieties.  The  prepara- 
tion for  this  method  varies  according  to  the  nature  of  the  fruit. 


PRESERVATION    OF    FRUIT.  373 

Apples  and  pears  must  be  peeled,  and,  if  not  too  large,  only  cored, 
otherwise  they  have  to  be  halved  or  quartered.  Melons  are 
peeled  and  cut  into  strips.  Quinces  are  steamed  until  soft,  then 
peeled  as  clean  as  possible,  quartered,  and  the  cores  removed. 
After  this  preparation  the  fruit  is  brought  into  the  preserving 
kettle  and  as  much  water  as  is  necessary  for  boiling  added. 
Boiling  should  be  done  very  slowly  and  continued  until  the  fruit 
commences  to  get  soft.  It  should  not  be  boiled  too  soft,  but  only 
sufficiently  to  enable  it  to  absorb  the  sugar-liquor.  When  this  is 
the  case  the  fruit  is  taken  from  the  fire  and  strained ;  with  the 
liquor  a  syrup  of  the  following  composition  is  prepared  :  For 
each  pound  of  fruit  take  one  pound  of  sugar  and  soak  it  in  ^ 
pint  of  the  liquor.  It  is  then  placed  upon  the  fire  and  the  re- 
sulting syrup  skimmed.  When  it  boils  the  fruit  is  introduced 
and  slowly  boiled,  or  rather  simmered,  because  it  must  not  fall  to 
pieces,  for  five  to  ten  minutes,  according  to  its  softer  or  harder 
nature.  The  fruit  while  still  warm  is  then  brought  into  the  jars 
in  which  no  vacuum  must  remain.  Hence  they  must  be  filled  up 
to  the  cork,  or,  if  bladder  or  parchment  paper  is  used,  for  closing 
them  up  to  the  rim.  In  the  latter  case  it  is  advisable  to  place 
upon  the  surface  a  close-fitting  piece  of  paper,  previously  satu- 
rated with  a  concentrated  solution  of  salicylic  acid  in  rum.  Cur- 
rants, barberries,  and  grapes  are  sometimes  preserved  in  their 
natural  clusters.  They  are  first  washed  in  fresh  water,  then 
slowly  boiled  soft,  and  strained.  With  the  liquor  a  syrup  of  the 
previously  mentioned  composition  is  prepared,  which  is  boiled 
and  skimmed  and  poured  upon  the  fruit  in  the  jars. 

Fine  table  pears  are  sometimes  preserved  in  the  following 
manner :  8  large  pears  are  placed  in  a  syrup  prepared  from  6 
ounces  of  sugar,  3  ounces  each  of  cloves  and  allspice,  J  pint  of 
water,  and  J  pint  of  port-wine  or  other  sweet  red  wine.  In  this 
syrup  they  are  boiled  very  slowly — as  much  as  3  hours — until 
soft,  and,  while  still  warm,  are  brought  together  with  the  syrup 
into  jars,  which  are  treated  in  the  manner  previously  described. 
By  taking  equal  parts  of  pears  and  of  fine  plums  a  very  beautiful 
product  is  obtained. 

The  boiling  down  of  fruit  in  large  stoneware  pots  is  frequently 
accompanied  by  mishaps,  and  is  more  and  more  superseded  by 


374  VINEGAR,    CIDER,   AND    FRUIT-WINES. ' 

other  methods.  It  consists  in  dissolving  J  to  J  pound  of  sugar 
in  water  and  boiling  the  resulting  syrup  together  with  the  fruit 
until  the  whole  forms  a  jelly-like  mass.  While  still  warm  the 
pots,  which  must  be  full,  are  tied  up  with  bladder.  A  piece  of 
salicylated  paper  should  be  placed  upon  the  surface  of  the  fruit 
before  tying  up  the  pots. 

Preserving  in  Air- Tight  Cans. 

This  method,  as  previously  mentioned,  is  the  only  one  which 
has  become  of  commercial  importance ;  for  the  United  States 
and  England  it  has  even  become  of  the  same  national  import- 
ance as  the  fabrication  of  beet-sugar  for  France  and  Germany. 
The  number  of  factories,  briefly  termed  canneries,  in  both  the 
countries  named,  has  largely  increased  during  the  last  few  years, 
and  not  a  few  of  them  employ  1000  hands  during  the  fall.  Of 
course  these  factories  do  not  limit  themselves  to  the  canning  of 
fruit,  as  otherwise  they  would  have  to  cease  operations  during 
the  winter  months,  but  that  branch  of  the  business  preponderates 
over  all  others.  The  search  after  other  suitable  material  is  con- 
stantly more  extended,  and  it  is  difficult  to  tell  what  may  not  be 
canned  in  the  future.  The  trade-list  of  a  large  English  factory 
now  contains  200  different  articles ;  it  includes,  however,  all 
Southern  fruits,  a  portion  of  which  is,  singularly  enough,  returned 
in  this  state  to  the  tropics.  The  American  trade-lists  embrace, 
as  a  rule,  three  groups,  viz : — 

1.  Apples,  pears,  peaches,  apricots,  plums,  strawberries,  rasp- 
berries, blackberries,  currants,   cranberries,  whortleberries,  necta- 
rines, grapes,  cherries,  quinces,  cocoanuts,  pineapples,  marmalade, 
jelly,  green  walnuts. 

2.  Peas,  beans,  beans  with  pork,  corn,  tomatoes,  asparagus, 
carrots,   onions,    pickles,    cauliflower,    horseradish,    mushrooms, 
catchups,  succotash,  plum-pudding,  sweet  potatoes. 

3.  All  kinds  of  poultry,  venison,  salmon,  lobster,  crawfish, 
oysters,  crabs,  beef,  mutton,  pork,  eels,  salt-water  fish,  ham,  pig's 
feet,  beef  tongue,  lamb's  tongue,  frog  legs,  mussels,  etc. 

All  the  varieties  of  fruit  named  in  the  first  group  being  not 
equally  well  adapted  for  canning,  the  less  suitable  kinds  are  only 


PRESERVATION   OF   FRUIT.  375 

used  in  small  quantities.  Plums  and  cherries  have  up  to  the 
present  time  caused  the  greatest  difficulty,  because  for  economy's 
sake  they  were  canned  without  removing  the  stones,  in  which  the 
germ  had  to  be  destroyed  by  the  application  of  a  high  degree  of 
heat.  When  this  was  omitted  the  contents  of  the  cans  would 
spoil  as  soon  as  shipped  to  warm  countries,  in  consequence  of  the 
germination  of  the  stones.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  the  cans  were 
sufficiently  heated,  the  plums  or  cherries  would  fall  to  pieces,  and 
in  this  pasty  condition  were  unsaleable  in  many  markets,  for  in- 
stance in  England.  To  overcome  this  evil  the  manufacturers 
have  recently  commenced  to  stone  these  varieties  of  fruit  as  well 
as  peaches  and  apricots.  It  may  here  be  remarked  that  both 
plums  and  cherries  are  comparatively  dear  in  the  United  States, 
the  cause  of  their  not  thriving  well  being  partially  due  to  the 
climate  and  partially  to  numerous  enemies.  Heart-cherries, 
black  raspberries,  and  whortleberries  are  the  worst  varieties  of 
fruit  for  canning,  as  they  lose  their  agreeable  taste  by  steaming. 
Strawberries  also  become  somewhat  insipid,  but  red  raspberries 
are  excellent  provided  they  are  canned  as  soon  as  possible  after 
being  gathered.  Blackberries  are  not  quite  so  good,  though,  if 
brought  into  the  can  immediately  when  plucked,  they  furnish  an 
agreeable  dish.  Currants  have  too  many  seeds,  and  are  better 
used  for  jelly.  Black  currants  are  well  suited  for  canning,  and 
in  this  state  are  much  used  by  bakers  for  tarts.  Gooseberries 
canned  before  entirely  ripe  are  very  good.  Among  the  smaller 
stone  fruit  the  Mazard  cherry  has  few  superiors ;  if  carefully 
canned,  it  retains  its  shape,  color,  and  aroma  as  on  the  tree. 
Most. plums  are  suitable  for  canning,  provided  they  are  stoned. 
Among  the  kernel  fruits  the  quince  occupies  the  first  rank,  as 
it  is  the  only  variety  of  fruit  which  gains  by  steaming.  Pears 
are  very  suitable  for  canning,  as  even  the  inferior  qualities  can 
be  used  for  the  purpose.  Apples,  however,  must  be  carefully 
selected,  and  only  sweet  varieties  with  firm  flesh  should  be  used  ; 
the  Siberian  crab-apples  can  be  highly  recommended  for  the  pur- 
pose. 

As  a  general  rule,  fruit  for  canning  should  have  a  firm  flesh 
and  fine  aroma.  We  find  these  conditions  in  all  the  varieties 
preferred  by  the  North  American  factories,  whose  canned  goods 
can  be  found  in  every  large  city  of  the  world.  The  peaches  are 


376  VINEGAR,    CIDER,    AND    FRUIT-WINES. 

of  the  early  and  late  Crawford*  varieties,  and  the  apricots  Moor- 
parks.  Among  plums  we  find  the  following  varieties  :  Washing- 
ton, Columbia,  Reine  Claude,  Coe's  golden  drop,  yellow  gage. 
Royal  Ann  is  the  favorite  variety  of  cherries,  though  the  differ- 
ent varieties  of  Bigareans  and  the  black  Tartarian  heart-cherry 
are  also  used.  Muscat,  Muscat  Alexandria,  and  Malaga  are  the 
favorite  varieties  of  grapes.  Among  apples  the  Newtown  pippin 
is  pre-eminent ;  it  is  considered  one  of  the  finest  apples  in  this 
country.  Several  varieties  of  pears  are  highly  esteemed  in  the 
Eastern  States  for  canning  purposes,  but  in  California  the  Bart- 
lett  pear  is  almost  exclusively  used.  With  this  pear  the  Califor- 
nian  packers  say  they  have  conquered  the  foreign  markets,  and 
they  will  not  risk  their  reputation  by  abandoning  it. 

Next  to  the  variety  of  fruit  the  cans  are  of  the  greatest  import- 
ance. Much  has  been  said  and  written  in  regard  to  them,  and 
the  discussion  pro  and  con  will  very  likely  be  continued  until  a 
new  and  important  improvement  is  discovered.  And  it  is  actu- 
ally necessary  that  the  inventors  should  set  their  wits  to  work 
for  the  production  of  a  can  which  would  overcome  all  complaints, 
as  thereby  they  could  create  a  beneficial  revolution  in  the  fruit 
industry.  The  well-known  patent  cans  are  excluded  from  use  on 
a  large  scale  on  account  of  their  high  price.  Glass  jars  have  some 
advantages  :  they  are  comparatively  cheap,  allow  of  an  inspection 
of  their  contents,  and  the  ready  recognition  of  a  leak,  and  are  not 
attacked  by  the  vegetable  acid.  But,  nevertheless,  they  have  not 
been  introduced  into  general  use  because  they  are  liable  to  break, 
and,  being  heavy,  increase  the  cost  of  transportation,  and,  finally, 
it  is  difficult  to  close  them  air-tight.  The  sealing  of  a  bottle  with 
a  narrow  mouth  is  quite  a  different  thing  from  sealing  one  with  an 
aperture  three  inches  in  diameter.  It  may  do  for  pickles,  marma- 
lade, or  jelly,  but  for  preserved  fruits  which  are  to  be  transported 
long  distances  it  cannot  be  depended  on.  The  same  objections 
may  be  made  to  stoneware  jars,  which  possess  the  further  disad- 
vantage that  their  contents  cannot  be  inspected  and  a  leak  is  dif- 
ficult to  discover.  Nevertheless,  they  are  used  by  some  large 
English  factories  for  the  reason,  it  is  claimed,  of  keeping  their 

*  The  name  given  to  each  fruit  is  the  recognized  name  of  the  American 
Pomological  Society  as  far  as  recorded  in  their  catalogue. 


PRESERVATION    OF    FRUIT.  377 

products  free  from  influences  deleterious  to  health.  To  facilitate 
sealing  the  jars  are  generally  small — of  about  one  pound  capacity. 
Tin  cans  have  many  defects,  but  their  use  is  very  extensive,  and 
in  the  United  States  they  are  almost  exclusively  employed.  In 
California  they  are  manufactured  of  a  size  that,  when  filled,  they 
weigh  2J  Ibs.,  while  in  the  Eastern  States,  as  well  as  in  England, 
they  weigh,  filled,  only  2  Ibs.  Complaint  has  been  frequently 
made  that  the  use  of  tin  cans  is  deleterious  to  health  because  they 
contain  lead,  which  is  dissolved  by  the  vegetable  acid  and  trans- 
ferred to  the  fruit-syrup.  In  reply  it  has  been  said  that  only  the 
inferior  qualities  of  tin  contain  lead,  and  that  only  in  an  infini- 
tesimal quantity  ;  but  it  cannot  be  denied  that  the  solder  may 
readily  become  injurious  to  health,  and  in  cases  of  poisoning  ex- 
amined in  the  United  States  and  in  England,  it  could  every  time 
be  shown  that  the  respective  cans  were  soldered  on  the  inside. 
In  England,  if  we  are  correctly  informed,  soldering  the  cans  in- 
side is  now  prohibited,  and  the  passage  of  a  similar  law  in  the 
United  States  is  agitated.  At  any  rate  the  time  is  very  likely 
not  very  distant  when  such  soldering  will  be  entirely  done  away 
wTith,  if  only  for  competitive  reasons.  To  completely  overcome 
all  complaints  against  solder,  as  well  as  against  a  content  of  lead 
in  the  tin,  cans  are  now  manufactured  in  England  which  are  pro- 
vided inside  with  a  thin  coating  whereby  the  contents  are  pro- 
tected from  contact  with  the  metal.  The  insoluble  constituent  of" 
this  coating  consists  of  silicate  of  lime  or  glass-powder  previously 
treated  with  hydrofluoric  acid,  while  the  soluble  constituent  is 
silicate  of  soda  or  of  potash.  Any  silicate  of  earthy  bases  or 
metals  may  be  used,  or  a  precipitated  gelatinous  silicate.  The 
alkali  is  fixed  or  removed  by  means  of  a  bath  containing  a  dilute 
solution  of  hydrofluosilicic  acid,  or  a  dilute  solution  with  any  other 
suitable  acid.  For  preparing  the  composition  mix  the  soluble 
with  the  insoluble  silicate.  The  tin  plates  are  coated  with  this 
mixture  by  means  of  a  brush,  or  dipped  in  a  bath  of  it  and  then 
dried  by  heat.  The  plates  thus  acquire  a  glass-like  coating, 
which  remains  fixed  no  matter  IIOAV  the  plates  may  be  handled 
and  worked.* 

*  In  this  country  some  packers  of  lobsters,  shrimps,  etc.,  line  the  cans  with 
parchment  paper. 


378  VINEGAR,    CIDER,    AND   FRUIT-WINES. 

In  the  canneries  in  the  United  States  the  cans  are  manufacured 
in  a  special  department,  and  the  division  of  labor  is  carried  so  far 
that  every  can  passes  through  eight  hands  before  it  is  finished  ; 
but  only  with  such  a  system  is  it  possible  to  turn  out  large  quan- 
tities in  an  incredibly  short  time.  This  far-reaching  division  of 
labor  is,  however,  not  limited  to  this  department  alone,  but  is  the 
supreme  law  in  the  entire  establishment.  In  the  same  department 
the  solder  is  cut  by  a  machine  into  small  three-cornered  pieces. 
Each  workman  receives  a  certain  quantity  by  weight  of  solder 
and  of  charcoal  with  which  he  is  expected  to  solder  a  certain 
number  of  cans.  The  workmen  are  paid  by  the  piece,  and  each 
solderer  has  a  number  which  is  stamped  in  every  can  he  solders, 
so  that  those  which  prove  leaky  may  be  returned  to  him  for  repair. 
By  this  system  there  is  no  waste  of  material,  and  the  leaky  cans 
do  not  exceed  5  in  1000. 

In  another  department  the  fruit  is  carefully  inspected  on  long 
tables ;  the  unsound  is  thrown  out,  and  the  sound  turned  over  to 
the  peelers  and  stoners,  who  of  course  work  with  the  most  im- 
proved machines.  There  are  carriers  bringing  uninterruptedly 
fresh  fruit  and  off-bearers  removing  and  sorting  the  waste. 
^Nothing  is  thrown  away,  the  waste  being  used  partially  in  the 
manufacture  of  jelly  and  partially  in  distilling ;  even  the  stones 
are  utilized,  as  they  are  sold  either  to  nurserymen  or  to  chemical 
factories.  Other  workmen  are  occupied  in  placing  the  peeled  and 
stoned  fruit  in  the  cans,  which  are  handed  over  to  boys,  who  place 
them  upon  small  trucks  running  upon  rails  and  transport  them 
to  the  department  where  the  filling  in  takes  place.  In  the  same 
department  the  syrup  of  sugar  and  water  is  prepared,  but  if  the 
proportion  of  composition  were  asked  a  different  answer  would 
be  received  in  every  cannery.  In  regard  to  this  point  every 
manufacturer  has  his  own  ideas,  which  also  extend  to  modifications 
for  the  different  varieties  of  fruit.  One  factory  we  know  of  did 
not  use  any  syrup  whatever.  The  fruit  was  simply  pressed  quite 
tight  into  the  can,  and  had  to  depend  on  its  own  juice.  The  fruit 
retained  its  natural  color,  taste,  and  aroma  better  than  with  the 
use  of  syrup,  but  the  important  question  whether  its  keeping 
quality  was  equally  good  we  are  unfortunately  not  able  to  answer. 
All  manufacturers  agree,  however,  that  the  best  quality  of  white 


PRESERVATION    OF    FRUIT.  379 

sugar  should  be  used  for  light-colored  fruits,  and  light  brown 
sugar  for  dark-colored,  and  that  the  syrup  must  be  perfectly  clear, 
and,  hence,  very  carefully  skimmed  in  boiling.  In  most  factories 
the  syrup  used  consists  of  1  Ib.  of  sugar  dissolved  in  1  pint  of 
water.  The  filling  of  the  cans  with  the  fruit  and  syrup,  the  latter 
being  generally  kept  warm,  is  effected  with  the  assistance  of  a 
scale,  so  that  each  can  has  exactly  the  weight  upon  which  the 
selling  price  is  based.  The  caps  previously  provided  with  a  hole 
the  size  of  a  small  pea  are  then  soldered  upon  the  cans.  The  hole 
in  the  cap  serves  for  the  escape  of  the  air  during  the  succeeding 
process. 

Different  kinds  of  apparatus  are  used  for  the  expulsion  of  the 
air  by  heating  the  cans.  In  large  factories  a  steam  retort  is  used 
which  resembles  in  shape  a  ship's  steam  boiler.  It  is  provided 
with  a  door  closing  air-tight,  and  is  divided  in  the  centre  so  that 
it  can  be  filled  either  half  or  entirely  with  steam,  as  may  be 
required.  The  cans  to  the  number  of  from  400  to  600  are  placed 
upon  trucks  which  run  upon  rails  leading  into  the  retort.  Eight 
such  trucks  can  be  introduced  at  one  time,  so  that  it  is  possible  to 
steam  from  30,000  to  40,000  cans  per  day.  The  retort  being  filled 
the  door  is  closed  and  the  pipe  communicating  with  the  steam 
boiler  opened.  The  cans  remain  in  the  retort  from  15  to  30 
minutes,  according  to  the  variety  of  the  fruit :  berries  1 5  minutes, 
stone-fruits  20,  apples  and  pears  25,  quinces  and  tomatoes  30. 
The  door  is  then  opened,  and  after  the  steam  has  some  what  dispersed 
the  trucks  are  quickly  pushed  to  the  tin-shop,  where  the  cap-holes 
are  soldered  up.  To  cleanse  the  cans  and  make  them  shiny  they 
are  next  put  in  a  bath  of  soda  water  and  then  rinsed  off  with 
cold  fresh  water.  They  are  then  transferred  to  the  store  room, 
where  they  remain  standing  quietly  for  one  week,  when  they  are 
tested  by  striking  the  cap  of  each  a  short  sharp  blow  with  a 
wooden  hammer.  If  everything  is  in  order,  the  cap  sinks  slowly 
down,  but  if  it  is  elastic  and  jumps  back  the  can  is  what  is  called 
a  "  swellhead,"  and  is  returned  to  the  tin-shop  for  repairs  and  is 
then  again  steamed.  The  perfect  cans  are  labelled  and  packed 
and  are  now  ready  for  market. 

Another  apparatus  which  can  be  highly  recommended  for  small 
factories  consists  of  a  round  iron  plate  resting  upon  a  brick  basis 


380  VINEGAR,   CIDER,    AND    FRUIT- WINES. 

about  one  foot  high.  Two  round  iron  rods  run  up  opposite  to 
each  other  from  the  edge  of  this  plate  and  serve  as  a  support  for  a 
movable  iron  cylinder  open  at  the  bottom  and  closed  on  top. 
Upon  the  iron  plate  the  cans  are  placed  in  the  form  of  a  pyramid, 
and  the  cylinder  is  then  drawn  down  and  screwed  air-tight  to  the 
plate.  A  pipe  communicating  with  the  steam-boiler  enters  the 
cylinder,  and  as  soon  as  the  latter  is  connected  with  the  plate  steam 
is  admitted.  After  a  certain  time,  which  corresponds  with  that 
previously  given,  the  steam  is  shut  off,  the  cylinder  pushed  up, 
and  the  cans  removed,  the  further  treatment  of  which  is  the  same 
as  given  above. 

In  many  factories  the  cans  are  still  heated,  according  to  the  old 
method,  in  boiling  water.  For  this  purpose  the  cans — 100  at  a 
time — are  placed  upon  an  iron  plate  attached  to  a  steam-crane  and 
submerged  for  15  to  20  minutes  in  boiling  water  in  a  large  shal- 
low kettle.  In  this  case  the  caps  are  not  perforated,  but  soldered 
down  air-tight.  A  workman  watches  the  cans  while  they  remain 
in  the  water  and  by  means  of  a  tool  removes  those  from  which 
small  bubbles  arise ;  such  cans  being  not  air-tight  are  returned  to 
the  tin-shop  for  repairs.  The  rest  after  being  heated  are  also 
brought  to  the  tinshop,  where  the  caps  are  perforated  with  a  hole 
the  size  of  a  small  pea,  which  is  again  soldered  up  after  the  escape 
of  the  heated  air. 

The  canning  of  tomatoes,  asparagus,  and  other  vegetables  is 
effected  in  a  similar  manner  except  that  no  syrup  is  used.  For 
the  following  description  of  tomato  canning,  which  may  serve  as 
a  type  for  all  the  rest,  we  are  indebted  to  Mr.  Richard  T.  Starr, 
of  Salem,  N.  J. 

The  tomato  was  for  many  years  found  only  in  hot-houses  and 
conservatories  of  the  rich.  It  was  known  as  the  love-apple  and 
considered  a  curiosity.  Our  ancestors  had  no  idea  that  this  small 
red  berry,  for  such  was  about  its  size,  would  ever,  even  under 
careful  cultivation,  become  of  mammoth  size  and  form  one  of 
our  most  important  articles  of  food.  But  such  is  actually  the 
case  to-day.  The  exact  time  when  the  now  great  industry  of  can- 
ning this  vegetable  commenced  cannot  be  established  with  any 
certainty.  The  taste  for  it  seems  to  be  an  acquired  one,  and  for 
years  the  industry  struggled  in  its  infancy  until  the  breaking 


PRESERVATION    OF    FRUIT.  381 

out  of  the  War  of  the  Rebellion  caused  a  demand  that  rapidly 
grew  into  gigantic  proportions,  and  to-day  finds  the  tomato-canning 
industry  employing  an  army  of  men,  women,  and  children,  while 
millions  of  dollars  are  invested  in  the  payment  of  labor  and  the 
erection  of  plants. 

In  order  that  our  readers  may  have  a  clear  idea  of  the  business 
we  will  commence  with  the  beginning.  Having  made  up  his  mind 
to  engage  in  the  business  on  an  average  scale,  the  packer  will 
first  find  a  suitable  plot  of  ground,  on  a  navigable  stream,  if  pos- 
sible. Having  secured  this,  the  next  thing  is  the  erection  of  the 
buildings  ;  these  are  generally  one  story  in  height  and  as  large  and 
roomy  as  the  capital  will  warrant.  The  next  step  is  to  secure  the 
requisite  supply  of  fruit,  and  for  this  purpose  the  farmers  are 
drawn  on  and  contracts  entered  into  with  them  in  which  the 
packer  agrees  to  take  the  entire  marketable  product  of  a  certain 
number  of  acres  or  else  to  take  so  many  tons.  These  contracts 
are  generally  made  about  the  first  of  the  year,  and  as  soon  as  the 
sun  drives  the  frost  from  the  ground  the  farmer  prepares  his  beds 
and  sows  his  seed.  While  the  latter  is  growing  the  land  which 
is  to  be  planted  is  heavily  manured  and  plowed  and  carefully 
worked  until  it  becomes  mellow,  and  then  hills  about  four  feet 
apart  are  made,  and  into  each  one  is  put  a  small  quantity  of  com- 
post or  phosphates.  The  tomato  plants,  having  by  this  time 
grown  to  the  height  of  6  or  8  inches,  are  taken  from  the  beds,  and 
on  a  cloudy  day  or  the  latter  part  of  a  bright  day  transplanted 
and  tended  about  as  other  growing  crops.  With  a  favorable  sea- 
son the  farmer  should  commence  delivering  to  the  factory  about 
the  middle  of  August. 

The  arrangement  of  a  canning  factory  is,  of  course,  a  matter 
of  taste,  but  the  most  complete,  in  our  opinion,  is  one  where  every- 
thing moves  in  a  straight  line,  and  in  which  none  of  the  help  is 
obliged  to  interfere  with  one  another.  The  first  thing  to  be  done 
with  a  load  of  tomatoes  is,  of  course,  to  weigh  them,  and  for  this 
purpose  platform  scales  are  built  at  an  end  door  and  the  wagons 
driven  on  them.  After  being  weighed  the  tomatoes  are  handed 
over  to  the  scalder.  Tomatoes  arriving  in  all  kinds  of  weather 
and  conditions  must,  of  course,  not  only  be  washed  but  scalded, 
so  as  to  thoroughly  loosen  the  skin  from  the  pulp,  and  to  do  this 


382  VINEGAR,    CIDER,    AND    FRUIT-WINES. 

quickly  and  properly,  a  heavy  box  of  white  pine  is  fitted  with 
both  steam  and  water  pipes  and  attached  to  it  is  an  iron  cradle 
swinging  on  hinges  and  raised  and  lowered  by  a  wheel  and  pulley 
suspended  above.  On  the  back  of  this  is  placed  a  box,  and  as  the 
farmer  hands  off  his  baskets  they  are  emptied  into  this  box,  and 
at  the  command  of  the  man  at  the  rope,  who  is  called  the 
"  scalder/'  they  are  dumped  into  the  boiling  water  beneath.  A 
few  seconds  suffice  to  clean  and  scald  them ;  the  cradle  is  then 
raised  and  the  tomatoes  are  poured  into  kettles  set  in  front  of  the 
scalder  to  receive  them. 

While  this  has  been  going  on  a  group  of  women  and  girls  have 
been  filing  into  the  factory  and  seating  themselves  along  the  trays 
that  are  to  receive  the  tomatoes  from  the  scalder.  These  trays  are 
of  different  construction,  but  are  similar  as  regards  length,  breadth,- 
and  depth,  the  only  difference  being  in  the  various  ways  of  get- 
ting rid  of  the  water  and  juice.  This  is  generally  done  by  mak- 
ing a  slat  frame  fit  in  the  bottom  and  over  a  trough  fastened  under 
the  tray.  This  leads  to  a  drain,  which  carries  it  to  the  creek  or 
wherever  else  it  is  to  go.  At  each  tray  are  from  ten  to  twelve 
women,  each  of  them  furnished  by  the  packer  with  a  bowl  and 
knife,  and  provided  at  their  own  expense  with  a  neat  water-proof 
apron.  The  tomatoes  are  dumped  from  the  kettles  in  front  of 
them,  and  they  remove  rapidly  the  already  loosened  skins  and 
cores  and  deposit  the  prepared  fruit  in  a  bucket  sitting  beside 
them.  They  become  so  efficient  that  a  smart  active  woman  will 
frequently  skin  from  40  to  60  buckets  a  day,  and  as  they  receive 
4  cents  per  bucket  it  Avill  be  seen  they  make  fair  wages.  Standing 
just  beyond  the  women  are  the  machines  which  fill  the  cans.  To 
describe  them  would  be  impossible,  there  being  so  many  shapes 
and  many  makes.  Some  are  very  good,  some  very  poor,  every 
man  thinks  his  the  best,  and  so  it  goes,  but  in  one  respect  they  all 
agree  :  they  have  a  hopper  into  which  the  fruit  is  poured  from  the 
buckets,  and  all  have  the  plunger  which  forces  the  fruit  into  the 
cans ;  the  treadles  of  some  of  them  are  moved  by  hand  and  some 
by  steam.  The  machines  rapidly  fill  can  after  can,  which  are  then 
set  on  the  "  filling  table"  and  receive  "  top  them  off/7  or  in  other 
words  the  fruit  is  cleared  away  from  the  top  of  the  can  so  that  the 
solder  used  in  capping  them  will  not  become  chilled.  They  are 


PRESERVATION   OF    FRUIT.  383 

then  placed  in  trays  each  holding  either  10  or  12  cans  and  re- 
moved to  the  "  wiping  table,"  where  everything  is  cleared  from 
the  top,  wiped  dry  with  sponges,  and  the  cap  placed  over  the 
opening.  The  "  cappers"  stand  directly  in  front  of  the  wiping 
table,  and  each  one  has  his  own  fire  pot,  irons,  files,  and  everything 
he  uses  before  him.  Taking  the  tray,  he  rapidly  applies  by  means 
of  a  small  brush  the  acid  or  flux  necessary  to  make  the  solder 
flow  freely  around  the  cap,  and  then  with  the  iron  melts  the  solder 
and  puts  it  in  the  groove.  The  can  is  then  vented  and  is  ready 
for  the  "  bath."  The  baths  except  in  size  are  constructed  simi- 
larly to  the  scalder  and  a  thin  cedar  cover  fits  over  each  one.  The 
cans  are  placed  in  wire  or  iron  crates,  lowered  into  the  boiling 
water,  and  allowed  to  remain  as  long  as  necessary  to  cook  them. 
The  time  of  working  varies  in  the  different  factories,  but  all  the 
way  from  30  to  50  minutes  is  required.  They  are  then  taken 
from  the  bath  and  placed  on  a  slat-floor,  where  the  air  can  pass 
through  them,  and  when  they  are  cold  are  "tested"  generally  by 
striking  them  with  an  awl.  The  testers  become  so  expert  that 
they  can  instantly  detect  by  the  sound  an  imperfect  or  leaking 
can ;  these  are  thrown  out,  mended,  re-pressed,  and  put  back  in 
the  pile.  The  cans  are  now  ready  for  the  next  thing,  which  is 
labelling. 

Labelling  is  done  in  different  ways,  and  some  canuers  with  an 
idea  of  saving  labor  employ  devices  which  are  not  only  hard  on 
the  young  girls  who  do  the  work,  but  which  often  result  in  much 
confusion  and  poor  work.  The  best  method  is  to  divide  the  help 
into  parties  of  five,  one  girl  sitting  on  one  side  of  the  table  with 
paste-pan,  brush,  and  labels  and  the  other  four  opposite  her. 
The  one  girl,  if  quick  and  active,  will  paste  the  ends  of  the  labels 
as  fast  as  the  other  four  can  put  them  on  the  cans.  The  table  is 
of  course  alongside  the  pile  of  cans,  and  two  smart  boys  will 
place  the  cans  on  the  table.  As  a  girl  labels  a  can  she  pushes  it 
from  her,  when  it  is  taken  by  the  boxer,  put  in  the  box,  and 
nailed  up.  This  mode  is  simple  and  effective,  and  as  the  gang 
will  label  from  700  to  900  cases  in  a  day  the  work  progresses 
rapidly. 

In  many  of  the  larger  factories  patent  processing  kettles,  cap- 
ping irons,  and  improved  machinery  are  used,  but  as  the  result 


384  VINEGAR,    CIDER,   AND   FRUIT-WINES. 

is,  of  course,  the  same,  and  they  do  not  affect  the  mode  of  pack- 
ing, it  is  not  thought  necessary  to  enter  into  any  description  of 
them. 

In  the  foregoing  an  outline  of  the  packing  process  has  been 
given,  but  nothing  has  been  said  of  the  many  trials  and  vexa- 
tions of  a  canner's  life.  If  everything  went  always  smoothly,  it 
would  be  as  pleasant  as  any  other  business,  but  it  does  not.  The 
canner  will  early  in  the  season  employ  his  hands  and  commence 
in  a  small  way.  He  may  start  and  run  only  two  or  three  hours, 
and  for  that  length  of  time  boilers  will  have  to  be  fired  up,  help 
got  together,  and  at  the  close  the  factory  cleansed  the  same  as  if 
he  had  run  the  day  out.  Then,  as  the  crop  rapidly  matures,  work 
becomes  heavier,  and  at  last  the  inevitable  "  glut"  commences, 
and  he  finds  the  products  of  400  or  500  acres  of  perishable  fruit 
at  his  doors,  may  be  50  wagons,  each  owned  by  an  impatient 
farmer  standing  in  the  street  waiting  his  turn  to  unload.  That 
is  the  time  he  has  need  of  nerve ;  help  must  be  secured,  every- 
thing and  everybody  pushed  to  their  utmost  endurance,  and  from 
early  morning  until  way  into  the  night,  day  after  day,  the  work 
goes  on,  help  succumbs,  and  machinery  breaks,  but  the  factory 
must  move  in  storm  and  in  sunshine.  The  work  must  go  on,  and 
at  last  the  agony  is  over,  and  the  crop  coming  in  again  gradually 
gives  a  little  relief  to  the  overworked  people.  And  now  the  crop 
is  in,  the  farmer  has  brought  his  "good-bye"  load,  the  force 
places  everything  in  winter-quarters,  and  with  farewells  and 
thoughts  of  the  future  they  separate  for  their  homes  and  the 
season  in  a  tomato-canning  factory  is  over. 

The  taste  for  tomatoes  being,  as  previously  mentioned,  an  ac- 
quired one,  and  the  people  of  European  countries  being  slow  to 
take  hold  of  them,  the  principal  market  the  canner  has  is  in  this 
country  and  the  demands  made  by  sea-going  vessels.  The  min- 
ing regions  of  Pennsylvania  and  of  other  States  use  large  quan- 
tities, and  they  have  now  become  a  necessity  in  many  households, 
some  of  the  working  classes  using  them  largely  in  place  of  meat. 
That  they  are  a  nutritious,  healthy  article  of  food  has  been 
clearly  proved,  and  the  low  prices  of  the  past  few  years  have 
placed  them  within  the  reach  of  all.  It  would  be  an  impossi- 
bility to  correctly  state  the  amount  of  capital  invested  or  the 


PRESERVATION   OF   FRUIT.  385 

number  of  persons  employed  in  the  industry.  The  States  of 
New  Jersey,  Maryland,  and  Delaware  pack  a  large  proportion  of 
the  goods,  the  late  falls  and  the  nature *6f  the  soil  being  particu- 
larly well  adapted  for  raising  tomatoes,  and  in  every  little  village 
in  these  States  factories  have  sprung  up  like  mushrooms  within 
the  past  few  years.  The  business  has  been  brought  to  a  solid 
basis,  and  with  careful  handling  and  the  opening  of  a  prosperous 
business  future  it  seems  as  if  it  ought  to  become  one  of  the  sub- 
stantial enterprises  of  this  country. 

In  connection  with  the  canning  of  tomatoes  it  may  be  of 
interest  to  our  readers  to  give  the  preparation  of 

Catchups. 

Under  the  name  of  catchup  or  catsup  a  thickly-fluid  sauce 
comes  into  commerce,  which  is  used  as  a  condiment  with  meat 
and  the  fabrication  of  which  has  become  of  some  importance. 
Everywhere  where  Anglo-Saxons  reside  catchup  is  found,  though 
it  has  also  been  introduced  on  the  continent  of  Europe  and  in  the 
tropics.  The  varieties  most  liked  are  tomato  and  walnut  catch- 
ups, and  immense  quantities  of  them  are  manufactured  in  the 
American  canning  establishments.  The  mode  of  preparation  is 
so  simple  that  it  can  be  introduced  into  every  kitchen. 

Tomato  catchup. — The  receipts  for  making  this  favorite  catchup 
are  innumerable,  and  should  we  take  those  of  every  packer  and 
housewife  in  the  land  and  put  them  together  they  would  make  a 
good-sized  volume.  We  must  therefore  limit  ourselves  to  giving 
a  few  approved  receipts. 

Some  factories  will  accumulate  the  skins  and  refuse  of  a 
tomato -canning  season,  storing  the  same  in  vaults  and  vats  until 
the  season  is  over,  then  cook  the  mass  up  and  trust  to  a  liberal 
supply  of  oils  and  condiments  to  impose  it  on  an  unsuspecting 
public  as  "  fresh  tomato  catchup,"  but  it  is  not  fresh  and  should 
not  be  called  so.  The  proper  way  to  make  a  good  sweet  article  is 
to  place  each  day  in  vats  or  hogsheads  the  skins,  etc.,  of  the  day. 
These  will  by  the  next  morning  have  become  slightly  fermented, 
and  the  skin  and  pulp  can  be  readily  separated  by  rubbing  them 
either  with  a  steam  rubber  or  by  hand  in  a  fine  copper  sieve.  In 

25 


386  VINEGAR,    CIDER,    AND   FRUIT- WINES. 

this  marmer  all  seeds,  etc.  are  removed,  and  the  pure,  sweet  juice 
of  the  tomato  alone  remains.  Take  this,  and,  having  your 
kettles  perfectly  clean,  place  it  in  them  and  bring  it  sloicly  to 
a  boil,  carefully  skimming  off  the  scum  that  will  rise  to  the 
top.  When  it  has  cooked  down  about  one-half  put  in  your 
cloves  and  allspice,  which  should  be  in  bags,  and  let  them  remain 
boiling  with  the  rest.  Shortly  afterwards  put  in  your  other 
spices,  salt,  pepper,  etc. ;  a  small  dash  of  ground  cinnamon  will 
add  much  to  the  flavor,  although  the  person  making  it  must  be 
guided  by  his  taste.  From  a  third  to  half  as  much  vinegar  as 
(there  is  juice  should  be  put  in  when  it  is  about  half  cooked,  and 
tthe  mustard  must  be  thoroughly  mixed  with  vinegar  before  being 
rput  in.  Let  all  now  boil  until  it  gets  thoroughly  done,  and  if  too 
thick,  thin  it  while  hot  with  vinegar  and  bottle  or  barrel  as 
desired.  There  can  be  no  receipt  given  that  will  suit  all 
in  regard  to  the  amount  of  the  different  condiments  to  be  used, 
•as  each  person  has  ideas  of  his  own,  but  all  catchup  should  be 
'made  liotter  than  desired,  as  it  will  undoubtedly  lose  some  of  its 
strength  when  it  becomes  cold.  The  best  of  spices  and  vinegar 
sliould  always  be  used,  and  every  vessel  into  which  it  is  put 
should  be  perfectly  clean  and  free  from  any  mold  or  dust.  Seal 
the  bottles  carefully,  and  if  you  have  them  thoroughly  air-tight 
it  will  like  wine  improve  with  age. 

The  following  receipts  can  be  recommended  : — 

I.  'Take  15  quarts  of  thoroughly  ripe  tomatoes,  4  tablespoon- 
fuls  each  of  black  pepper,  salt,  and  allspice,  8  red  peppers,  and  3 
'teaspoonfuls  of  mustard.    The  pepper  and  allspice  must  be  ground 
fine  and  the  whole  boiled  slowly  3  to  4  hours;  then  pass  all 
•through  .-a  fine  sieve  and  when  cold  put  it  in  bottles,  which  must 
be  immediately  sealed. 

II.  Boil  4  quarts  of  tomatoes  together  with  2  quarts  of  vine- 
gar,  2  tablespoonfuls  of  red  pepper,  4  tablespoon fuls  of  black 
pepper,  1  tablespoonful  of  cloves,  1  teaspoonful  of  salt,  and  1 
ground  nutmeg  to  a  thick  paste.    Strain  through  a  coarse-meshed 
«ieve  and  sweeten  the  sauce  obtained  with  J  Ib.  of  sugar.     Fill 
in  bottles  and  shake  once  every  day  for  a  week. 

III.  Cut  up  perfectly  ripe  tomatoes  and  place  them  upon  the 
fire  until  they  commence  to  bubble.     Then  take  them  from  the 


PRESERVATION   OF   FRUIT.  387 

fire,  and  when  cool  rub  them  with  the  hand  through  a  hair-sieve 
and  season  according  to  the  following  proportions:  For  each 
quart  of  sauce  add  1  teaspoonful  of  ground  allspice,  1  teaspoonful 
of  ground  cloves,  1  tablespoonful  of  salt,  and  1  quart  of  wine- 
vinegar.  Stir  the  whole  thoroughly  together,  replace  it  upon  the 
fire,  and  boil  for  one  hour,  with  constant  stirring.  When  cool 
put  the  catchup  in  bottles  and  seal  immediately. 

Walnut  catchup. — I.  In  June,  when  the  walnuts  are  still  soft, 
take  10  dozen  of  them,  and  after  crushing  pour  over  them  2 
quarts  of  wine-vinegar,  add  the  following  spices,  all  ground  :  2 
tablespoonfuls  of  black  pepper,  1J  oz.  of  nutmeg,  40  cloves,  J  oz. 
of  ginger,  and  J  oz.  of  mace,  and  boil  the  whole  J  hour,  stirring 
constantly.  When  cold  strain  through  a  hair-sieve  and  put  the 
catchup  in  bottles. 

II.  Crush  about  10  dozen  of  young,  soft  walnuts,  sprinkle 
f  Ib.  of  salt  over  them,  and  then  add  1  quart  of  vinegar.  Let 
the  whole  stand  six  weeks,  stirring  frequently.  Then  strain 
through  a  bag,  with  constant  pressing  with  the  hand.  Pour  1 
pint  of  vinegar  over  the  residue,  let  it  stand  over  night,  and 
strain  again  through  the  bag.  Combine  the  fluid  with  that  pre- 
viously obtained  and  season  with  the  following  spices,  all  ground : 
1J  oz.  of  black  pepper,  J  oz.  of  nutmeg,  J  oz.  of  ginger,  J  oz.  of 
mace,  and  40  cloves.  Then  boil  J  hour,  strain  through  a  hair- 
sieve,  and  bottle. 

Cucumber  catchup. — Thoroughly  ripe  cucumbers,  before  turning 
yellow,  are  peeled  and  grated  upon  a  coarse  grater.  This  paste  is 
brought  into  a  colander  to  allow  the  juice  to  run  off,  then  pressed 
through  a  coarse  hair-sieve  to  remove  the  seeds,  and  finally  brought 
into  small,  wide-mouthed  bottles,  which  are  filled  f  full.  The  re- 
maining space  is  filled  up  with  good  wine-vinegar.  This  catchup 
has  the  taste  and  odor  of  fresh  cucumber,  and  is  used  as  a  condi- 
ment with  meat.  Before  bringing  it  to  the  table  it  is  seasoned 
to  taste  with  salt  and  pepper. 

Horseradish  catchup.— The  mode  of  preparation  is  the  same  as 
for  the  preceding,  putting  the  grated  mass  in  a  colander  and 
straining  through  a  hair-sieve  being,  however,  not  necessary. 
Both  varieties  of  catchup  must  be  immediately  corked,  sealed, 
and  kept  in  a  cool  place.  Within  the  last  few  years  both  have 


388  VINEGAR,    CIDER,   AND   FRUIT-WINES. 

been  prepared  on  a  large  scale  in  the  United  States  and  in  Eng- 
land, and  have  become  an  article  of  export.  They  are  packed  in 
small,  wide-mouthed  bottles,  sealed,  and  provided  with  gayly- 
colored  labels.  Some  English  factories  use  small  earthenware 
pots  of  a  cream  color,  closed  with  corks  over  which  is  tied  strong 
colored  paper.  The  pots  are  very  good,  but  the  manner  of 
closing  them  is  not ;  the  corks  should  be  sealed. 

Currant  catchup. — Heat  nearly  to  the  boiling  point,  with  con- 
stant stirring,  4  Ibs.  of  thoroughly  ripe  currants  together  with  1 J 
Ib.  of  sugar.  Then  add  1  tablespoonful  each  of  cinnamon,  salt, 
cloves,  and  pepper — all  finely  pulverized — and  1  quart  of  vine- 
gar. Boil  the  mixture  one  hour  and  then  treat  in  the  same  man- 
ner as  tomato  catchup. 

Gooseberry  catchup. — This  product  also  comes  into  commerce 
under  the  name  of  "spiced  gooseberries;"  it  is  an  excellent  con- 
diment with  roast  fowl.  Take  6  quarts  of  gooseberries,  ripe  or 
unripe  as  may  be  desired,  and  carefully  remove  the  stems  and 
pistils.  Then  bring  them  into  a  kettle,  and  after  pouring  some 
water  and  scattering  5  Ibs.  of  pulverized  sugar  over  them,  boil 
for  1J  hour.  After  boiling  for  1J  hour  add  4  Ibs.  more  of 
sugar  and  1  tablespoonful  each  of  allspice,  cloves,  and  cinnamon. 
The  catchup  is  not  strained,  but  brought  at  once  and  while  warm 
into  wide-mouthed  bottles  or  pots,  which  are  immediately  corked 
and  sealed.  It  is  advisable,  before  closing  the  bottles,  to  lay  a 
closely-fitting  piece  of  salicylated  paper  upon  the  surface  of  the 
catchup.  The  bottles  should  be  kept  in  a  cool  place. 

It  is  scarcely  necessary  to  remark  that  catchup  can  be  prepared 
not  only  from  the  above,  but  from  all  varieties  of  fruit,  as  it  is 
only  necessary  to  take  one  of  the  above  receipts  as  a  type.  But, 
with  few  exceptions,  those  given  are  the  only  catchups  prepared 
on  a  large  scale  and  brought  into  commerce. 

Another  subject  which  may  be  referred  to  in  connection  with 
the  preservation  of  fruit  is  the  preparation  of 

Fruit-butter ,  Marmalade,  and  Jelly. 

Fruit-butter. — The  manufacture  of  apple-butter,  which  may 
serve  as  a  type  of  that  of  all  other  fruit-butters,  is  effected  as 


PRESERVATION   OF   FRUIT.  389 

follows :  Fill  the  boiler  two-thirds  full  with  the  juice  of  sweet 
and  bitter-sweet  apples  in  about  the  same  proportion  as  given 
for  the  manufacture  of  cider.  The  other  third  of  the  boiler  is 
filled  up  with  slices  of  ripe,  juicy  apples,  and  the  mixture  boiled, 
with  frequent  stirring.  When  the  slices  of  apples  are  so  soft  that 
they  commence  to  fall  to  pieces,  they  are  carefully  removed  from 
the  boiler  by  means  of  a  skimmer,  care  being  had  to  allow  the 
juice  to  run  oif.  The  same  quantity  of  fresh  slices  of  apples  is 
then  brought  into  the  juice  and  boiled  in  the  same  manner  as  the 
preceding.  When  these  have  acquired  the  necessary  degree  of 
softness,  the  entire  contents  of  the  kettle,  together  with  the  slices 
of  apples  previously  boiled,  are  brought  into  a  stoneware  pot  and 
allowed  to  stand  covered  for  12  hours.  The  mass  is  then  re- 
placed upon  the  fire  and  boiled,  with  constant  stirring,  until  it 
has  acquired  the  consistency  of  soft  soap.  If  desired,  it  can  at 
the  same  time  be  seasoned  with  cinnamon,  nutmeg,  etc.  To  pre- 
vent scorching  the  second  boiling  is  effected  in  vessels  standing 
in  boiling  water. 

In  the  same  manner  fruit-butter  can  be  prepared  from  all 
varieties  of  fruit,  pear  or  apple  juice  forming,  however,  always 
the  boiling  liquor.  Apple  and  peach  butters  are  commercially  of 
the  greatest  importance,  though  butter  of  quinces,  pears,  black- 
berries, cherries,  plums,  and  cranberries  is  also  manufactured  on 
a  large  scale.  Whortleberries,  which  grow  in  enormous  quantities 
in  some  parts  of  the  country,  might  also  form  an  excellent  material 
for  this  product.  In  the  foregoing  only  the  varieties  are  mentioned 
which  are  manufactured  on  a  large  scale  by  American  and  English 
factories  that  chiefly  control  the  trade  in  fruit-butters,  but  these  do 
not  by  any  means  exhaust  the  list ;  green  gages  can,  for  instance, 
be  highly  recommended  for  the  purpose. 

The  excellent  product  brought  from  France  into  commerce 
under  the  name  of  raisine  is  prepared  in  the  above  manner  by 
slowly  boiling  sliced  apples  and  pears  in  unfermented  grape-juice. 

Fruit-butter  is  packed  in  wooden  buckets  of  5  or  10  Ibs.  capa- 
city. Tin  cans  holding  2  Ibs.  jire  also  sometimes  used,  but  they  are 
not  liked.  The  buckets  are  slightly  conical  towards  the  top  and 
are  provided  with  a  wire  handle.  Resinous  wood  should  not  be 
used  in  their  construction,  as  it  would  impart  an  odor  to  the  fruit- 


390  VINEGAR,    CIDER,   AND   FRUIT-WINES. 

butter.  The  buckets  are  filled  up  to  the  edge,  and  a  closely  fitting 
round  piece  of  paper  previously  saturated  with  concentrated 
solution  of  salicylic  acid  in  whiskey  is  laid  on  top  of  the  butter. 
The  tight-fitting  lid  is  placed  upon  the  bucket  without  being 
sealed  or  otherwise  closed.  A  large  label  occupying  the  space 
between  the  lower  and  upper  hoops  finishes  the  packing. 

Marmalade. — The  same  product  is  sometimes  called  marmalade 
and  sometimes  jam.  The  French  prepare  only  marmalade,  while 
the  Englishman  brings  the  same  product  into  commerce  as  jam 
or  as  marmalade,  just  as  it  may  suit  him  best,  and  the  German  is 
not  much  better.  The  manufacturers,  to  be  sure,  would  some- 
times like  the  public  to  believe  that  marmalade  is  a  finer  product 
containing  more  sugar  and  spices  than  jam,  but  such  is  not  the 
case,  because  the  raw  material  and  the  mode  of  preparation  are 
the  same.  The  term  marmalade  was  originally  applied  to  a  jam 
prepared  from  quinces,  it  being  derived  from  marmdo,  the  Portu- 
guese word  for  quince.  The  term  was  gradually  given  to  all 
jams  in  order  to  give  them  a  more  distinguished  character,  and  this 
has  led  to  a  confusion  of  terms  which  sometimes  extends  even  to 
jelly.  There  is,  however,  a  wide  distinction  :  marmalade  or  jam 
is  prepared  from  the  pulp  of  fruit  and  jelly  from  the  juice,  while 
fruit-butter,  as  above  indicated,  is  a  blending  of  both  with  the 
omission  of  sugar. 

For  the  manufacture  of  marmalade  on  a  large  scale  all  the  rules 
and  receipts  can  be  condensed  as  follows  :  The  fruit  must  be  of 
excellent  quality,  entirely  free  from  blemishes  and  washed  per- 
fectly clean.  Kernel  fruit  is  peeled,  quartered,  and  freed  from  the 
cores ;  peaches  are  also  peeled,  halved,  and  stoned ;  other  stone- 
fruit  is  only  stoned  and  halved,  while  berries  are  carefully  freed 
from  the  stems.  Melons  and  pumpkins  are  peeled  and  cut  into 
small  pieces.  Rhubarb  should  not  be  washed  but  rubbed  with  a 
moist  cloth  and  be  then  cut  into  small  pieces.  Tomatoes  are  to  be 
peeled,  which  is  facilitated  by  previously  placing  them  for  one 
minute  in  hot  water.  Being  thus  prepared  the  fruit  is  brought 
into  a  copper  kettle  and  as  much  water  as  is  required  for  boiling 
added.  While  the  fruit  is  boiling,  weigh  off  as  many  pounds  of 
white  sugar  as  there  is  fruit,  soak  it  in  water,  boil  and  skim  care- 
fully. The  fruit  should  be  boiled  quickly,  and  when  perfectly 


PKESERVATION    OF    FRUIT.  391 

«oft  is  allowed  to  cool  off  somewhat  and  then  rubbed  through  a 
wide-meshed  hair-sieve.  The  mass  passing  through  the  sieve  is 
combined  with  the  sugar  and  replaced  upon  the  fire.  The  whole 
is  then  boiled,  with  constant  stirring,  to  the  required  consistency. 
The  latter  is  tested  by  taking  a  small  sample  with  a  wooden  or 
bone  spoon — nothing  else  should  be  used — and  if  it  draws  threads 
between  the  fingers  the  boiler  is  removed  from  the  fire.  The 
marmalade  is  then  brought  into  straight  jars,  and  after  laying  a 
piece  of  salicylated  paper  on  top,  the  jars  are  tied  up  with  white 
parchment  paper  or  sometimes  covered  with  a  glass  cover  and 
labelled.  It  may  be  remarked  that  in  the  last  stage  of  boiling 
the  marmalade  is  sometimes  flavored,  which  is  generally  effected 
by  stirring  in  lemon  juice,  cinnamon,  and  nutmeg  according  to 
taste.  The  liquor  obtained  by  boiling  crushed  kernels  of  plums 
or  peaches  is  also  frequently  at  the  same  time  added  as  flavoring. 
Frequently  the  sugar  is  not  treated  as  stated  above,  but  added  in 
the  form  of  powder. 

The  quantity  of  sugar  has  above  been  given  in  the  proportion 
of  1  Ib.  to  1  Ib.  of  fruit.  Though  this  is  the  customary  rule,  many 
manufacturers  use  only  J  Ib.  of  sugar,  a  method  which  can  be 
highly  recommended.  In  fact  there  is  frequently  a  perfect  waste 
as  regards  the  addition  of  sugar,  some  adding  even  1J  Ib.  of  it  to 
the  pound,  whereby  the  taste  of  fruit  is  entirely  lost  and  the  pro- 
duct, on  account  of  its  sweetness,  becomes  repugnant  to  many. 
It  may  be  laid  down  as  a  rule  that  in  all  fruit  boiling  no  more 
sugar  than  is  absolutely  necessary  should  be  used.  The  secret  of 
the  great  reputation  the  products  of  the  principal  American  fac- 
tories enjoy  in  all  portions  of  the  world  is  simply  due  to  the  fact 
that  they  use  as  little  sugar  as  possible,  whereby  the  products  are 
rendered  not  only  cheaper  but  they  retain  their  natural  fruit  taste, 
and  that  is  what  the  consumer  desires  and  not  a  sugary  paste 
having  only  the  color  of  the  preserved  fruit.  The  durability  of 
the  product  need  not  necessarily  suffer  if  due  care  is  exercised  in 
its  preparation.  Marmalade  should  not  be  made,  as  it  is  only  too 
frequently  done,  from  fruit  which  has  been  gathered  for  several 
days  and  shows  signs  of  decay.  Fruit  not  over-ripe  and  freshly 
gathered  should  be  used  and  the  boiling  finished  as  quickly  as 
possible.  By  then  rinsing  the  jars  with  salicylated  water  and 


392  VINEGAR,   CIDER,    AND   FRUIT-WINES. 

covering  the  marmalade  with  a  piece  of  paper  saturated  with  con- 
centrated solution  of  salicylic  acid  or  with  alcohol,  }  Ib.  of  sugar 
to  1  Ib.  of  fruit  will  be  ample,  and  even  J  ib.  with  sweet  fruits 
such  as  pears,  raspberries,  etc.  Independently  of  the  saving  of 
sugar,  such  marmalade  will  give  better  satisfaction  than  an  article 
twice  as  sweet,  and  will  keep  well  in  a  dark  cool  place. 

From  France  a  very  fine  perfumed  apple  marmalade  is  brought 
into  commerce.  It  is  prepared  from  equal  parts  of  Calvilles  and 
Pippins,  and  after  boiling  is  sprinkled  with  rose-water  or  violet 
essence. 

The  term  tutti-frutti  is  applied  to  marmalade  prepared  from  a 
mixture  of  different  kinds  of  fruit.  As  the  name  implies  it  is 
of  Italian  origin.  The  composition  is  made  according  to  taste 
and  the  fruits  at  disposal. 

Jelly. — This  product  is,  unfortunately,  often  made  expensive 
and  at  the  same  time  spoiled  by  too  large  an  addition  of  sugar. 
Many  housekeepers  do  not  like  to  prepare  jellies  under  the  pre- 
text that  it  requires  too  much  sugar;  but  this  is  an  error,  because 
in  France,  in  factories  as  well  as  in  households,  they  use  only  J 
pound,  or  at  the  utmost  f  pound,  of  sugar  to  the  pound  of  fruit, 
instead  of  1  pound  or  even  1 J  pound,  as  is  customary  in  Eng- 
land, Germany,  and  parts  of  the  United  States.  Moreover,  the 
apple-jelly  which  is  made  in  the  United  States  and  sent  to  all 
parts  of  the  world  is  made  without  any  addition  of  sugar.  In- 
stead of  apples,  as  the  raw  material,  apple-juice  is  used,  which 
must  be  perfectly  sweet  and  treated  immediately  after  it  comes 
from  the  press.  A  moderate  temperature  is  absolutely  necessary 
for  success,  for,  if  the  juice  commences  to  ferment — and  it  does 
very  rapidly  in  warm  weather — the  keeping  quality  of  the  jelly 
is  injured,  except  it  be  mixed  with  a  considerable  quantity  of 
sugar.  A  temperature  of  41°  F.  is  considered  the  most  suitable, 
and  if  it  rises  to  above  66°  F.  the  manufacture  is  at  once  stopped. 
The  juice  runs  directly  from  the  press  into  the  boiler,  under 
which  a  strong  fire  is  kept  because  the  starchy  matters  contained 
in  the  juice  are  only  converted  into  sugar  if  the  boiling  down  is 
quickly  effected.  For  this  reason  shallow  pans  offering  a  large 
surface  to  the  fire  are  used.  When  the  juice  commences  to  boil 
it  is  clarified,  and  the  acid  it  contains  neutralized  by  the  addition 


PRESERVATION   OF    FRUIT.  393 

of  one  teaspoonful  of  elutriated  chalk  to  each  quart  of  juice. 
The  chalk  weighed  off  in  this  proportion  is  mixed  with  the  juice, 
and  appears  in  a  few  minutes  as  a  thick  scum  upon  the  surface 
from  which  it  is  carefully  removed  with  a  skimmer.  By  this 
operation  the  jelly  is  clarified,  and  all  the  albuminous  substances 
contained  in  it  being  removed  by  the  chalk,  filtering  is  not  re- 
quired. The  process  is  similar  to  the  defecation  of  the  juice  of 
sugar-cane  and  beets  by  lime.  The  juice  is  now  boiled  to  the 
consistency  of  30°  or  32°  B.,  which  is  found  on  cooling  to  be  the 
proper  point  for  perfect  jelly.  It  is  then  filled  direct  from  the 
pan  into  tumblers,  which  are  treated  in  the  same  manner  as  mar- 
malade jars. 

Successful  jelly  boiling  on  a  large  scale  is  impossible  without 
the  use  of  the  saccharometer.  It  is  the  only  reliable  guide  for 
the  addition  of  sugar,  for  if  the  product  is  to  be  protected  from 
spoiling  it  must  show  from  30°  to  32°.  If  this  result  can  be 
reached  without  the  addition  of  sugar,  it  is  so  much  the  better. 

Pear  and  mulberry  jellies  are  prepared  in  exactly  the  same 
manner  as  above.  Other  fruits  containing  more  acid  require  an 
addition  of  sugar,  especially  currants,  which  next  to  apples  and 
pears  are  most  used  for  jelly,  but  in  no  case  is  the  same  weight  of 
juice  and  sugar  required. 

To  prepare  jelly  from  berries  and  other  small  fruit,  pour  hot 
water  over  the  fruit  in  order  to  free  it  from  adhering  dirt  and  to 
facilitate  the  separation  of  the  juice.  When  the  water  is  cool 
take  the  berries  out,  express  the  juice,  and  bring  the  latter  im- 
mediately into  a  copper  or  brass  kettle  over  a  lively  fire.  Then 
stir  in  pulverized  sugar,  the  quantity  of  which  varies  according 
to  the  variety  of  fruit.  For  raspberries,  strawberries,  and  black- 
berries J  pound  of  sugar  to  the  pound  of  juice  will  be  sufficient, 
and  §  pound  or  at  the  utmost  f  pound  for  currants,  barberries, 
elderberries,  and  whortleberries.  The  sugar  being  added  stir  in 
the  chalk  in  the  proportion  previously  given,  and  after  allowing 
the  Juice  to  boil  not  longer  than  15  minutes,  take  it  from  the  fire 
and  strain  it  at  once  into  the  glasses.  In  this  manner  a  clear, 
beautiful  jelly  of  an  agreeable  taste  will  be  obtained.  If,  on  the 
other  hand,  the  juice  is  boiled  slowly  over  a  weak  fire,  the  result 
will  be  a  turbid  product  which  has  lost  its  fruity  taste. 


394  VINEGAR,   CIDER,    AND    FRUIT-WINES. 

Stone-fruit  is  boiled,  and  after  boiling  it  with  a  small  quantity 
of  water  until  soft  the  juice  is  pressed  out  and  f  pound  of  sugar 
added  for  every  pound.  It  should  be  boiled  quickly,  and  not,  as 
some  receipts  have,  for  f  hour.  Quinces  are  peeled  and  then 
treated  like  stone-fruit.  Rhubarb  is  cut  into  small  pieces  and 
then  treated  in  the  same  manner.  A  quite  good  jelly  can  also  be 
prepared  from  the  medlar,  provided  it  is  allowed  to  become  com- 
pletely ripe,  and  is  then  slowly  steamed  with  a  very  small  quan- 
tity of  water.  When  thoroughly  soft  the  juice  is  pressed  out 
and  f  pound  of  sugar  added  to  each  quart.  The  mass  is  sharply 
boiled  for  20  minutes,  when  the  result  will  be  a  clear  jelly. 

In  France,  as  previously  mentioned,  perfumed  marmalade  is 
prepared  from  equal  parts  of  Calvilles  and  Pippins.  From  the 
same  material,  which  is  considered  best  for  the  purpose,  a  per- 
fumed jelly  is  also  prepared.  The  apples  are  not  peeled,  but  cut 
into  slices,  and  boiled  with  a  small  quantity  of  water  until  soft 
enough  to  be  pressed  in  a  filter-bag.  To  every  pound  of  juice 
J  pound  of  sugar  is  added,  and  five  minutes  before  the  saccharo- 
meter  indicates  30°  B.,  J  or  J  pound  of  violet  blossoms  is  stirred 
into  the  juice,  a  few  drops  of  cochineal  being  generally  added  to 
improve  the  color.  The  jelly,  when  finished,  is  strained  through 
a  hair-sieve  into  wide-mouthed  bottles  which  are  corked  and 
sealed. 

A  jelly  is  made  from  raspberries,  and  sometimes  also  from 
strawberries  and  blackberries,  in  which  the  berries  remain  intact. 
The  process  consists  in  dissolving  2  pounds  of  white  sugar  in 
water  and  boiling  until  thickly  fluid.  Two  pounds  of  berries  are 
then  brought  into  the  kettle  and  carefully  mixed  with  the  sugar 
so  as  to  avoid  crushing.  The  kettle  is  then  taken  from  the  fire 
and  allowed  to  stand  covered  for  15  minutes,  when  it  is  replaced 
and  the  sugar  boiled  up  once  more.  The  product  is  kept  in  jars 
well  corked  and  sealed. 

In  conclusion  we  give  the  process  of  manufacturing  apple-jelly 
in  the  largest  factory  in  Oswego  County,  New  York,  as  described 
by  Mr.  Dewitt  C.  Peck.  There  are  some  features  peculiar  to  this 
establishment  which  may  be  new  and  interesting. 

The  factory  is  located  on  the  Salmon  Creek,  which  affords  the 
necessary  power.  A  portion  of  the  main  floor,  first  story,  is  occu- 


PRESERVATION   OF    FRUIT.  395 

pied  as  a  saw-mill,  the  slabs  furnishing  fuel  for  the  boiler  furnace 
connected  with  the  evaporating  department.  Just  above  the  mill, 
along  the  bank  of  the  pond  and  with  one  end  projecting  over  the 
water,  are  arranged  eight  large  bins  holding  from  500  to  1000 
bushels  each,  into  which  the  apples  are  delivered  from  the  teams. 
The  floor  in  each  of  these  has  a  sharp  pitch  or  inclination  towards 
the  water,  and  at  the  lower  end  is  a  gate  through  which  the  fruit 
is  discharged,  when  wanted,  into  a  large  trough  half  submerged 
in  the  pond. 

Upon  hoisting  a  gate  in  the  lower  end  of  this  trough  consider- 
able current  is  caused,  and  the  water  carries  the  fruit  a  distance 
of  from  30  to  100  feet,  and  passes  into  the  basement  of  the  mill, 
where,  tumbling  down  a  four-foot  perpendicular  fall  into  a  tank, 
tight ,  in  its  lower  half  and  slatted,  so  as  to  permit  the  escape  of 
water  and  impurities,  in  the  upper  half,  the  apples  are  thoroughly 
cleansed  from  all  earthy  or  extraneous  matter.  Such  is  the  fric- 
tion caused  by  the  concussion  of  the  fall,  the  rolling  and  rubbing 
of  the  apples  together,  and  the  pouring  of  the  water,  that  decayed 
sections  of  the  fruit  are  ground  off  and  the  rotten  pulp  passes 
away  with  other  impurities.  From  this  tank  the  apples  are 
hoisted  upon  an  endless  chain  elevator,  with  buckets  in  the  form 
of  a  rake-head  with  iron  teeth,  permitting  drainage  and  escape  of 
water,  to  an  upper  story  of  the  mill,  whence  by  gravity  they  de- 
scend to  the  grater.  The  press  is  wholly  of  iron  ;  all  its  motion, 
even  to  the  turning  of  the  screws,  being  actuated  by  the  water- 
power. 

The  cheese  is  built  up  with  layers  inclosed  in  strong  cotton 
cloth,  which  displaces  the  straw  used  in  olden  times  and  serves 
also  to  strain  the  juice.  As  it  is  expressed  from  the  press  tank 
the  juice  passes  to  a  storage  tank  and  thence  to  the  defecator. 
This  defecator  is  a  copper  pan  11  feet  long  and  about  3  feet  wide. 
At  each  end  of  this  pan  is  placed  a  copper  tube  3  inches  in  diam- 
eter and  closed  at  both  ends.  Lying  between  and  connecting 
these  two  are  twelve  tubes  also  of  copper,  1J  inch  in  diameter, 
penetrating  the  larger  tubes  at  equal  distances  from  their  upper 
and  under  .surfaces ;  the  smaller  being  parallel  with  each  other, 
and  1J  inch  apart.  When  placed  in  position  the  larger  tubes, 
which  act  as  manifolds,  supplying  the  smaller  with  steam,  rest 


396  VINEGAR,    CIDER,    AND   FRUIT-WINES. 

upon  the  bottom  of  the  pan,  and  thus  the  smaller  pipes  have  a 
space  of  }  inch  underneath  their  outer  surfaces. 

The  apple-juice  conies  from  the  storage  tank  in  a  continuous 
stream  about  f  inch  in  diameter.  Steam  is  introduced  to  the 
large  or  manifold  tubes,  and  from  them  distributed  through  the 
smaller  ones  at  a  pressure  of  from  25  to  30  Ibs.  per  inch.  Trap- 
valves  are  provided  for  the  escape  of  water  formed  by  condensa- 
tion within  the  pipes. 

The  primary  object  of  the  defecator  is  to  remove  all  impurities 
and  perfectly  clarify  the  liquid  passing  through  it. 

All  portions  of  pomace  and  other  minute  particles  of  foreign 
matter,  when  heated,  expand  and  float  in  the  form  of  scum  upon 
the  surface  of  the  juice.  An  ingeniously  contrived  floating  rake 
drags  off  this  scum  and  delivers  it  over  the  side  of  the  pan.  To 
facilitate  this  removal,  one  side  of  the  pan,  commencing  at  a  point 
just  below  the  surface  of  the  juice,  is  curved  gently  outward  and 
upward,  terminating  in  a  slightly  inclined  plane,  over  the  edge 
of  which  the  scum  is  pushed  by  the  rake  into  a  trough  and  car- 
ried away. 

A  secondary  purpose  served  by  the  defecator  is  that  of  reducing 
the  juice  by  evaporation  to  a  partial  syrup  of  the  specific  gravity 
of  about  20°  B.  When  of  this  consistency  the  liquid  is  drawn 
from  the  bottom  and  the  less  agitated  portion  of  the  defecator  by 
a  syphon  and  thence  carried  to  the  evaporator,  which  is  located 
upon  the  same  framework  and  just  below  the  defecator. 

The  evaporator  consists  of  a  separate  system  of  six  copper  tubes, 
each  12  feet  long  and  3  inches  in  diameter.  These  are  jacketed, 
or  inclosed  in  an  iron  pipe  of  4  inches  internal  diameter,  fitted 
with  steam-tight  collars  so  as  to  leave  half  an  inch  space  sur- 
rounding the  copper  tubes.  The  latter  are  open  at  both  ends, 
permitting  the  admission  and  egress  of  the  syrup  and  the  escape 
of  the  steam  caused  by  evaporation  therefrom,  and  are  arranged 
upon  the  frame  so  as  to  have  a  very  slight  inclination  downward 
in  the  direction  of  the  current,  and  each  nearly  underneath  its 
predecessor  in  regular  succession.  Each  is  connected  by  an  iron 
supply-pipe,  having  a  steam-gauge  or  indicator  attached,  with  a 
large  manifold,  and  that  by  other  pipes  with  a  steam  boiler  of  30 
horse-power  capacity. 


PRESERVATION   OF   FRUIT.  397 

Steam  being  let  on  at  from  25  to  30  Ibs.  pressure,  the  stream 
of  syrup  is  received  from  the  defecator  through  a  strainer,  which 
removes  any  impurity  possibly  remaining,  into  the  upper  evapo- 
rator tube ;  passing  in  a  gentle  flow  through  that,  it  is  delivered 
into  a  funnel  connected  with  the  next  tube  below,  and  so  back 
and  forth  through  the  whole  system.  The  syrup  enters  the 
evaporator  at  a  consistency  of  from  20°  to  23°  B.  and  emerges 
from  the  last  tube,  some  three  minutes  later,  at  a  consistency  of 
from  30°  to  32°  B.,  which  is  found  on  cooling  to  be  the  proper 
point  for  perfect  jelly.  This  point  is  found  to  vary  one  or  two 
degrees,  according  to  the  fermentation  consequent  upon  bruises  in 
handling  the  fruit,  decay  of  the  same,  or  any  little  delay  in  ex- 
pressing the  juice  from  the  cheese.  The  least  fermentation  occa- 
sions the  necessity  for  a  lower  reduction.  To  guard  against  this, 
no  cheese  is  allowed  to  stand  over  night,  no  pomace  left  in  the 
grater  or  vat,  no  juice  in  the  tank;  and  further  to  provide  against 
fermentation  a  large  water-tank  is  located  upon  the  roof  and  filled 
by  a  force-pump,  and  by  means  of  hose  connected  with  this,  each 
grater,  press,  vat,  tank,  pipe,  trough,  or  other  article  of  machinery 
used  can  be  thoroughly  washed  and  cleansed.  Hot  water  instead 
of  juice  is  sometimes  sent  through  the  defecator,  evaporator,  etc., 
until  all  are  thoroughly  scalded  and  purified. 

If  the  saccharometer  shows  too  great  or  too  little  reduction,  the 
matter  is  easily  regulated  by  varying  the  steam  pressure  in  the 
evaporator  by  means  of  a  valve  in  the  supply  pipe. 

If  boiled  cider  instead  of  jelly  is  wanted  for  making  pies, 
sauces,  etc.,  it  is  drawn  off  from  one  of  the  upper  evaporator  tubes, 
according  to  the  consistency  desired  ;  or  it  can  be  procured  at  the 
end  of  the  process  by  simply  reducing  the  steam  pressure. 

As  the  jelly  emerges  from  the  evaporator  it  is  transferred  to  a 
tub  holding  some  50  gallons,  and  by  mixing  a  little  therein  any 
slight  variations  in  reduction  or  in  the  sweetness  or  sourness  of 
the  fruit  used  are  equalized.  From  this  it  is  drawn  through  fau- 
cets, while  hot,  into  the  various  packages  in  which  it  is  shipped 
to  market. 

A  favorite  form  of  package  for  family  use  is  a  nicely  turned 
little  wooden  bucket  with  cover  and  bail,  of  two  sizes,  holding  5 


398  VINEGAR,   CIDER,   AND   FRUIT-WINES. 

and  10  pounds  respectively.     The  smaller  packages  are  shipped 
in  cases  for  convenience  in  handling. 

The  present  product  of  this  factory  is  from  1500  to  1800  pounds 
of  jelly  each  day  of  10  hours.  It  is  calculated  that  improvements 
now  in  progress  will  increase  this  to  something  more  than  a  ton 
per  day.  Each  bushel  of  fruit  will  produce  from  4  to  5  pounds 
of  jelly,  fruit  ripening  late  in  the  season  being  more  productive 
than  other  varieties.  Crab-apples  produce  the  finest  jelly,  sour 
crabbed  natural  fruit  makes  the  best-looking  article,  and  a  mixture 
of  all  varieties  gives  most  satisfactory  results  as  to  flavor  and  gen- 
eral quality. 

Saving  of  the  apple-seeds. — As  the  pomace  is  shovelled  from  the 
finished  cheese  it  is  again  ground  under  a  toothed  cylinder,  and 
thence  drops  into  large  troughs  th rough  a  succession  of  which  a 
considerable  stream  of  water  is  flowing.  Here  it  is  occasionally 
agitated  by  raking  from  the  lower  to  the  upper  end  of  the  trough, 
as  the  current  carries  it  downward,  and  the  apple-seeds  becoming 
disengaged  drop  to  the  bottom  into  still  water  while  the  pulp 
floats  away  upon  the  stream.  A  succession  of  troughs  serves  to 
remove  nearly  all  the  seeds. 

The  value  of  the  apple-seeds  thus  saved  is  sufficient  to  pay  the 
daily  wages  of  all  the  hands  employed  in  the  establishment. 

The  apples  are  measured  in  the  wagon-box,  one-and-a-half 
cubic  feet  being  accounted  a  bushel. 

The  establishment  is  owned  by  George  B.  Bloomer,  of  Xew 
York,  who  is  also  the  inventor  of  the  defecator,  evaporator,  and 
much  of  the  other  machinery  in  use.  It  was  erected  late  in  the 
season  of  1880,  and  manfactured  that  year  about  45  tons  of  jelly, 
besides  considerable  cider  exchanged  to  the  farmers  for  apples, 
and  some  boiled  cider. 

The  price  paid  for  apples  in  1880,  when  the  crop  was  super- 
abundant, was  6  to  8  cents  per  bushel ;  in  1881,  15  cents. 

Such  institutions  are  important  to  the  farmer  in  that  they  use 
much  fruit,  not  otherwise  valuable  and  very  perishable.  Fruit  so 
crabbed  and  gnarled  as  to  have  no  market  value,  and  even  frozen 
apples,  if  delivered  while  yet  solid,  can  be  used.  Such  apples 
are  placed  in  the  water  while  frozen,  the  water  draws  the  frost 
sufficiently  to  allow  of  their  being  grated,  and  passing  through 


PRESERVATION   OF   FRUIT. 


399 


the  press  and  evaporator  before  there  is  time  for  chemical  change, 
they  are  found  to  make  very  good  jelly.  These  establishments 
are  valuable  to  the  consumer  by  converting  the  perishable,  cheap, 
almost  worthless  crop  of  abundant  years  into  such  enduring  form 
that  its  consumption  may  be  carried  over  to  the  years  of  scarcity, 
and  furnish  healthful  food  in  cheap  and  pleasant  form  to  many 
who  would  otherwise  be  deprived,  and  lastly  they  are  of  great 
interest  to  society  in  that  they  give  to  the  juice  of  the  apple  twice 
the  value  for  purposes  of  food  which  it  has  or  can  have,  even  to 
the  manufacturer,  for  use  as  a  beverage. 

We  will  finally  devote  some  space  to  the  description  of  the 
most  important  apparatus  required  in  the  preservation  of  fruit,  viz  : 


The  Kettle. 

Without  entering  into  a  discussion  of  the  various  kettles  used 
in  other  countries,  we  give  in  Fig.  75  an  illustration  of  a  very 
practical  apparatus  much  used  in  American  preserving  establish- 
ments. A  few  words  will  suffice  for  explanation.  A,  B,  C  iudi- 

Fig.  75. 


cate  a  washing  apparatus  for  washing  the  fruit,  and  which  can  be 
lifted  out.  When  this  is  done  a  lid  similar  to  D  is  hung  near  the 
chimney.  The  basket  or  crate  E,  as  here  shown,  is  of  wire,  in 
which  form  it  serves  for  fruit  to  be  dipped  into  hot  water  for  a 
few  moments  only,  as,  for  instance,  peaches  which  are  to  be  pared. 


400  VINEGAR,    CIDER,   AND   FRUIT-WINES. 

For  boiling  down  in  a  water  bath  a  copper  basket  is  used.  The 
fire-place  is  of  double  sheet  iron,  the  doors  and  grate  of  cast-iron. 
The  kettle  is  of  copper  and  jacketed  on  the  four  sides  with  two 
inch  boards.  In  the  centre  it  is  divided  by  a  movable  copper 
partition.  It  is  10  inches  deep,  48  inches  wide,  and  60  inches 
long.  The  entire  apparatus  weighs  1 50  pounds.  It  is,  of  course, 
scarcely  necessary  to  mention  that  this  kettle  is  manufactured  in 
all  sizes  according  to  the  requirements  of  the  manufacturer.  As 
seen  in  the  illustration,  the  fire-place  extends  beneath  the  entire 
width  and  length  of  the  kettle  whereby  the  contents  are  quickly 
heated  with  a  comparatively  small  consumption  of  fuel.  The 
apparatus  being  transportable  it  can  be  placed  wherever  most 
convenient,  and  being  accessible  from  all  sides  its  use  is  very  con- 
venient and  saves  time. 


CHAPTER  XXX. 

EVAPORATION   OF   FRUIT. 

OF  all  the  methods  employed  for  preserving  fruit  for  any  length 
of  time  none  has  a  greater  future  before  it  than  the  one  to  be  dis- 
cussed in  this  chapter.  The  reason  for  this  can  be  readily  given  : 
the  process  does  not  require  great  technical  skill;  it  excels  in 
cheapness  because  neither  vessels,  sugar,  nor  other  auxiliaries  are 
required,  the  product  possesses  excellent  keeping  qualities,  retains 
its  natural  flavor,  and  being  healthier  and  more  agreeable  than 
fruit  preserved  by  any  other  method,  is  especially  suitable  for  food 
for  the  masses. 

Evaporated  fruit  of  to-day  is  entirely  different  from  the  dried 
fruit  of  a  dozen  years  ago.  Who  does  not  remember  the  shrivelled, 
dark-colored,  wedge-shaped  pieces  of  apple  and  peach  that  were 
sold  by  the  family  grocer  ?  They  possessed  the  tenacity  of  sole- 
leather  and  were  uninviting  to  look  and  smell.  Before  they  could 
be  used  in  the  home-made  pies  they  required  to  be  boiled  and 
stewed  for  hours  at  a  time.  The  preparation  of  dried  fruits  of 
those  days  was  primitive.  Farmers'  wives  and  daughters  pared 


EVAPORATION   OF   FRUIT.  401 

and  sliced  the  apples  by  hand  and  placed  them  on  wooden  trays, 
which  were  set  out  in  the  sun.  It  took  days  to  dry  the  fruit, 
and  exposure  to  showers  and  the  night  air  had  to  be  avoided  or 
the  lot  would  be  spoiled.  The  advent  of  steam  evaporators  and 
scientific  methods  has  wrought  a  great  change  in  the  business. 
Large  evaporating  establishments  have  been  put  up,  thousands  of 
men  given  employment,  and  a  prosperous  industry  created.  The 
superiority  of  the  evaporated  fruits  to  the  sun-dried  article  has 
caused  an  immense  demand  for  them,  and  aside  from  the  con- 
sumption in  this  country  large  amounts  are  shipped  abroad.  The 
new  processes  now  in  use  produce  fruit  that  retains  much  of  its 
original  color,  and  that  is  as  palatable  as  though  it  were  in  its  fresh 
and  natural  condition. 

The  following  statement  may  suffice  to  show  to  what  proportions 
the  business  has  grown:  Within  a  radius  of  40  miles  of  Roches- 
ter, New  York,  there  are  1  500  evaporators,  from  the  small  farm- 
house apparatus,  with  a  capacity  of  25  bushels  per  day,  to  the 
large  steam  evaporators  drying  from  800  to  1000  bushels  of  apples 
every  24  hours.  These  evaporators  employ  over  30,000  hands 
during  the  fall  and  early  winter  months.  Large  quantities  of 
apples  of  a  quality  that  was  formerly  wasted  are  utilized,  and  the 
profits  of  fruit  raising  largely  increased.  The  annual  product 
of  evaporated  fruit  in  the  State  of  New  York  alone  is  now  esti- 
mated at  30,000,000  pounds  worth  at  first  cost  about  $2,000,000. 
In  order  to  produce  this  quantity  of  dried  fruit  no  less  than 
5,000,000  bushels  of  apples  are  required  and  15,000  tons  of  coal 
consumed.  A  constant  attendance,  night  and  day,  of  an  army  of 
men,  women,  and  children,  numbering  30,000,  is  necessary.  The 
process  of  evaporation  eliminates  225,000  tons  of  water,  reducing 
the  green  fruit  to  about  one-eighth  of  its  original  weight,  each 
100  Ibs.  yielding  when  properly  evaporated  12  Ibs.  of  fruit. 

Aside  from  the  fact  that  evaporated  fruit  can  be  transported  to 
any  clime  without  deterioration,  the  advantage  in  the  cost  of 
freight  is  great.  A  case  of  concentrated  product  costs  30  cents  for 
transportation  to  Liverpool  ;  in  the  green  state  the  8J  bushels 
required  to  produce  the  50  Ibs.  contained  in  each  case,  would  cost 
$2.25,  and  in  the  canned  state  the  cost  would  be  $2.10.  The 
total  exports  of  evaporated  and  dried  apples  for  the  fiscal  year 

26 


THF. 


402  VINEGAR,    CIDER,   AND   FRUIT-WINES. 

ending  June  30,  1888,  were  1,803,161  Ibs.,  of  the  value  of 
$812,682.  Some  idea  may  be  gathered  of  the  enormous  increase 
of  the  fruit-growing  industry  from  the  fact  that  in  1850  the  fruit 
crop  of  the  United  States  was  valued  only  at  $8,000,000,  while 
in  1886  it  was  estimated  at  $137,000,000. 

The  process  of  evaporating  fruit  is  a  comparatively  recent  one, 
it  being  not  more  than  fifteen  years  since  the  granting  of  the  Aldeu 
patent.  Like  all  other  new  inventions  some  years  were  required 
before  its  merits  became  thoroughly  understood,  though  at  the 
Paris  Exhibition  of  1878  the  first  prize  was  unanimously  awarded 
to  the  fruit  dried  by  that  process.  Since  then  it  has  spread  from 
California,  where  it  was  first  introduced,  throughout  the  entire 
country,  and  has  created  a  complete  revolution  in  the  fruit  industry. 
A  number  of  other  apparatuses  have  been  invented,  but  they  are 
all  based  upon  the  same  principle.  At  first  only  kernel  and  stone- 
fruits  were  evaporated,  but  at  the  present  time  the  list  comprises 
the  following  articles  :  apples,  pears,  peaches,  apricots,  plums, 
nectarines,  figs,  cherries,  blackberries,  grapes,  green  corn,  peas, 
potatoes,  sweet  potatoes,  onions,  tomatoes,  pumpkins,  rhubarb, 
asparagus,  hops,  tobacco,  meat,  oysters,  fish,  and  eggs.  This  list 
is  not  by  any  means  complete,  because  what  has  been  said  of  the 
canning  industry  also  holds  good  as  regards  the  evaporating 
establishments  :  they  every  year  include  within  the  sphere  of  their 
activity  new  suitable  articles.  And  it  is  no  wonder,  because  their 
products  bring  double  the  price  of  those  dried  in  the  sun  or  in  the 
oven.  A  great  advantage  of  evaporated  fruit  is  that  it,  even  after 
years,  regains  its  natural  form  and  freshness  when  placed  a  few 
hours  in  fresh  water  and  then  boiled  up  with  an  abundant  addition 
of  water.  No  leathery  skin  nor  unnatural  taste  of  sugar  is  ob- 
served. To  all  who  desire  the  natural  taste  of  the  fruit  there  can 
be  no  question  that  evaporated  fruit  is  preferable  to  that  preserved 
with  sugar  in  cans,  which  at  the  present  time  is  its  principal  com- 
petitor. And  this  result  is  obtained  by  less  expensive  means  and 
with  greater  certainty.  The  tin  cans  cost  sometimes  four  times 
as  much  as  the  fruit  they  contain,  and  the  loss  by  leakage  amounts 
on  an  average  to  10  per  cent.,  though  occasionally  to  the  entire 
value  of  the  shipment.  Complaints  have  been  made  by  nearly 
every  expedition  to  the  North  Pole  that  a  considerable  portion  of 
their  canned  goods  had  to  be  thrown  overboard,  making  retrench- 


EVAPORATION  OF  FRUIT.  403 

ment  necessary,  which  sometimes  amounted  to  actual  want.  When, 
in  1881,  the  steamer  "  Rodgers"  was  ready  to  sail  from  San  Fran- 
cisco in  search  of  the  "  Jeanette"  it  was  detained  for  eight  days  by 
the  discovery  that  of  the  stock  of  canned  goods  on  board  4000 
cans  were  leaky,  and  contained  provisions  already  in  a  state  of 
decay.  Every  sea-captain  can  tell  of  the  same  kind  of  experience. 
The  blame  rests  partially  upon  the  manufacturers  who  permit  the 
work  to  be  done  carelessly,  and  do  not  take  into  consideration  that 
the  slighest  access  of  air  spoils  the  contents  of  the  can,  but  par- 
tially also  upon  the  mode  of  preservation  itself,  because  even 
faultlessly  closed  cans  have  the  disadvantage  that  when  once 
opened  their  contents  must  be  immediately  used,  while  the  packages 
containing  evaporated  fruit  may  remain  open  for  years  in  every 
climate.  Moreover,  in  eating  the  latter,  lead  poisoning  need  not 
be  feared,  and,  as  previously  stated,  it  has  the  further  advantage 
of  a  great  reduction  in  the  cost  of  freight.  Green  peas,  of  which, 
as  is  well  known,  immense  quantities  are  canned,  may  serve  as 
another  example.  In  the  canned  state  seven  boxes  of  them  weigh 
350  Ibs.,  while  one  box  of  evaporated  peas,  which  contains  the 
same  quantity  of  substance,  but  deprived  of  its  content  of  water, 
weighs  only  43  Ibs.,  though  when  placed  upon  the  table  there  is 
not  the  slighest  difference  as  regards  quality  between  the  two 
articles.  Taking  into  account  all  these  advantages,  and  considering 
at  the  same  time  that  by  a  good  method  of  drying  the  hazards 
and  annoyances  connected  with  the  preservation  of  fruit  in  a  fresh 
state  can  be  largely  overcome,  it  must  be  concluded  that  the 
evaporating  process  is  destined  to  play  in  the  future  a  still  greater 
part  in  the  preservation  of  fruit  than  it  does  already  at  the 
present  time. 

Before  entering  upon  a  description  of  the  apparatus  and  its  use, 
it  will  be  necessary  to  explain  the  principle  upon  which  it  is  based 
and  the  theory  of  evaporating  fruit. 

The  object  to  be  attained  is  not  only  to  make  the  fruit  keep, 
but  also  to  retain  the  properties  for  which  it  is  valued.  This  can 
only  be  reached  by  withdrawing  the  content  of  water,  and  at  the 
same  time  converting  a  portion  of  the  starch  into  sugar  in  as  short 
a  time  as  possible  without  boiling  the  fruit.  The  latter  would 
injure  the  taste  of  the  fruit,  and  slow  drying  gives  a  flavor  calling 
to  mind  decay.  The  quicker  the  watery  portions  are  removed 


404  VINEGAR,    CIDER,    AND   FRUIT-WINES. 

from  thoroughly  ripe  fruit  the  richer  and  more  durable  its  taste 
will  be;  and  the  more  completely  the  oxygen  of  the  air  is  ex- 
cluded during  this  process  the  more  perfectly  will  it  retain  its 
color.  Rapidity  of  the  drying  process  sometimes  increases  the 
content  of  sugar  by  25  per  cent.,  and  this  increase  is  in  an  exact 
proportion  to  a  slower  or  quicker  evaporation  of  the  content  of 
water,  always  provided,  however,  the  fruit  does  not  suffer  injury 
from  the  heat. 

Any  one  who  has  boiled  down  the  juice  of  the  maple,  sorghum, 
sugar-cane,  or  sugar-beet  knows  that  with  slow  evaporation  sugar  is 
not  formed,  the  content  of  sugar  being  then  converted  into  acid. 
Now,  the  change  of  substance  must  be  constantly  kept  in  view  : 
starch  is  converted  into  sugar  (in  this  case  very  largely  already  in 
the  plant),  sugar  into  alcohol,  and  alcohol  into  vinegar.  This  ex- 
perience must  also  hold  good  in  drying  fruit.  The  chemical  pro- 
cess by  which  the  content  of  starch  of  the  fruit,  when  brought  into 
a  high  temperature,  is  converted  into  sugar  is  similar  to  that  during 
the  ripening  process  on  the  tree,  only  it  takes  place  more  rapidly. 

A  few  days  of  warm  sunshine  produce  sufficient  sugar  in  goose- 
berries and  grapes  to  change  the  sour  unpalatable  fruits  to  a  re- 
freshing article  of  food.  A  few  hours  in  an  evaporating  appa- 
ratus, in  which  the  proper  degree  of  heat  is  maintained,  can  produce 
a  still  greater  change,  provided  the  fruit  be  not  placed  in  it  before 
it  has  reached  perfection  in  a  natural  manner.  It  must  be  re- 
membered that  212°  F.  is  the  boiling  point,  and  that  subsequent 
treatment,  no  matter  how  careful,  cannot  restore  the  taste  lost  in 
such  a  temperature.  Of  no.less  importance  is  another  point :  the 
surface  of  the  fruit  to  be  dried  must  be  kept  moist  and  soft,  so 
that  the  internal  moisture  may  find  a  way  by  which  it  can  readily 
and  quickly  escape,  and  a  strong  hot  current  of  air  must  uninter- 
ruptedly pass  over  the  fruit  to  carry  off  the  escaping  moisture. 
Hence,  cold  air  must  under  no  circumstances  have  access  to  drying 
fruit,  and  above  the  latter  an  aperture  must  be  provided  for  the 
escape  of  the  air  saturated  with  moisture. 

The  apprehension  that  fruit  cannot  be  dried  in  a  hot  moist  ap- 
paratus is  refuted  by  the  well-known  scientific  fact,  that  air  of  the 
temperature  of  the  freezing  point  absorbs  TJV  part  of  its  weight 
of  moisture,  and  that  its  capacity  for  absorption  doubles  with 
every  15°  C.  (59°  F.)  of  higher  temperature.  Thus,  if  the  tern- 


EVAPORATION   OF   FRUIT.  405 

perature  is  59°  F.  it  absorbs  J^  part  of  its  weight  of  water,  86° 
F.  J-o  Part,  113°  F-  TO  Part,  140°  F.  ^  part,  167°  F.  J  part, 
194°  F.  f  part,  and  221°  F.  its  own  weight,  which  is  nearly 
equal  to  one  pound  of  wrater  to  every  J  cubic  foot  of  air. 

The  fruit  would  evidently  never  become  dry  if  the  air  loaded 
with  such  moisture  remained  stationary,  but  set  it  in  motion  with 
a  velocity  of  880  feet  per  minute,  which  is  equal  to  20  miles  per 
hour,  and  the  cause  of  the  rapid  drying,  or,  in  other  words,  of 
the  withdrawal  of  water,  becomes  apparent.  Xow  if  we  figure 
to  ourselves  an  apparatus  of  225  cubic  feet  content,  the  air  heated 
to  212°  F.  in  it  contains,  according  to  the  above  statement,  60 
pounds  of  water,  50  pounds  of  which  have  been  withdrawn  from 
the  fruit,  while  the  remaining  10  pounds  were  contained  in  the 
air  prior  to  its  entrance  into  the  apparatus,  because  its  tempera- 
ture is  supposed  to  be  62.5°  F.  With  sufficient  circulation  to 
empty  the  apparatus  every  20  minutes,  150  pounds  of  water  will 
each  hour  be  carried  from  a  quantity  of  fruit  supposed  to  amount 
to  800  pounds.  Hence,  in  5  hours,  the  time  generally  required, 
for  apples,  750  pounds  of  moisture  could  be  removed  if  present. 

Moreover,  reference  to  a  drying  apparatus  is  not  required  to 
prove  that  heat  alone  does  not  suffice  for  drying.  Is  it  not  the 
wind  which  dries  up  the  puddles  after  a  rain  more  quickly  than 
the  hottest  rays  of  the  sun?  The  sun  alone  would  effect  nothing 
else  but  envelop  the  moist  earth  in  a  dense  mantle  of  vapor  de- 
structive to  both  men  and  animals.  Thus  in  the  drying  appa- 
ratus also  it  is  rather  the  current  of  air  which  dries  than  the  heat, 
but,  of  course,  both  must  work  in  conjunction.  The  rapidity  of 
the  process  prevents  decay,  and  causes  the  color  and  aroma  of 
the  fresh  fruit  to  be  retained.  The  greater  advantage  of  this 
rapidity  consists,  however,  in  the  conversion  of  a  considerable 
quantity  of  starch  into  sugar,  which  in  sweet  fruits,  such  as 
peaches,  is  sometimes  formed  in  such  abundance  as  to  appear  in 
small  congealed  drops  upon  the  surface. 

From  the  preceding  it  will  also  be  readily  understood  why 
drying  in  the  sun  or  in  the  oven  must  yield  unsatisfactory  re- 
sults. Even  with  favorable  weather  the  process  lasts  about  14 
days ;  during  this  long  time  a  fermentation  sets  in  which  par- 
tially destroys  the  content  of  sugar,  and  essentially  changes  the 
color  and  taste  in  an  unfavorable  direction.  Such  fruit  when 


406*  VINEGAR,   CIDER,   AND   FRUIT-WINES. 

boiled  tastes  as  if  it  had  been  preserved  after  the  appearance  of 
decay.  Besides,  during  this  process,  the  fruit  is  frequently 
selected  as  a  breeding  place  by  insects,  in  consequence  of  which  it 
soon  spoils,  and  when  shipped  to  a  distance  resembles  on  arrival 
at  its  place  of  destination  a  heap  of  maggots.  Such  cases  are  not 
rare,  especially  if  the  dried  fruit  is  shipped  to  tropical  countries. 

Drying  in  the  oven  has  the  disadvantage  that  the  dry  heat  imme- 
diately closes  the  pores  of  the  fruit,  thereby  rendering  the  escape 
of  the  internal  moisture  very  difficult.  If  the  heat  is  not  very 
strong  the  fruit  remains  moist  in  the  interior,  which  causes  it  to 
spoil,  and  with  a  strong  heat  the  surface  carbonizes  more  or  less. 
A  portion  of  the  sweetness  is  lost  by  being  converted  into  cara- 
mel, the  appearance  of  the  fruit  suffers  by  the  tough  shrivelling  of 
the  surface,  and  the  taste  is  injured  by  carbonization. 

All  these  disadvantages  are  avoided  by  the  modern  evapo- 
rating process,  which  may  be  called  a  preservation  of  the  fruit 
in  its  own  juice  with  the  assistance  of  steam. 

A  chemical  analysis  of  a  parcel  of  Baldwin  apples  shows  best 
the  changes  effected  in  the  composition  of  fruit  by  drying  in  the 
oven  and  by  evaporation,  and  how  the  results  with  these  two 
methods  compare  with  each  other.  The  first  column  gives  the 
composition  of  500  parts  of  fresh  Baldwin  apples.  The  second 
column  gives  the  composition  of  the  same  parcel  of  apples  after 
being  reduced  to  100  parts  (loss  of  400  parts  of  water)  by  drying 
in  the  oven,  and  the  third  column  the  result  of  100  parts  of  the 
same  parcel  reduced  by  evaporation. 


Water  (free  and  fixed)    . 

Fresh. 

.  411.15 
9  60 

Dried  in 
the  oven. 
12.42 

10  54 

Evapo- 
rated. 
16.62 
10  22 

Starch      .... 
Protein    .... 
Pectine    .... 
Gum         .... 

.     32.95 
.       0.75 
.     12.35 
.       6.75 
6.70 

30.95 
0.80 
11.35 

7.22 
4.88 

29.75 
0.76 
10.88 
4.33 
3.43 

Mineral  constituents 
Chlorophyl 
Dextrin  .... 

.       0.85 
.       0.15 

0.87 
0.12 
2.10 

0.78 
0.15 

Grape  sugar    . 
Volatile  oils,  traces 

.     18.75 

18.75 

23.08 

500.00    100.00    100.00 


EVAPORATION   OF   FRUIT. 


407 


Fig.  76. 


Attention  must  especially  be  drawn  to  the  fact  that  dextrin, 
the  formation  of  which  is  due  to  dry  heat,  is  only  found  in  the 
second  column,  and  must  be  considered 
as  an  essential  disadvantage  of  drying 
in  the  oven.  The  absence  of  this  sub- 
stance in  evaporated  fruit,  as  well  as 
the  presence  of  a  larger  quantity  of 
water  (chemically  fixed),  is  to  be  as- 
cribed to  the  influence  of  moisture  dur- 
ing evaporation. 

A  presentation  of  the  process  of  evapo- 
rating fruit  must  be  preceded  by  a  de- 
scription of  the  apparatus  used.  Fig. 
76  shows  the  Alden  apparatus  as  re- 
cently perfected.  A  is  the  air-furnace, 
which  is  formed  by  the  fire-box  Z>,  the 
ash-box  Dv  and  the  doubled  horizontal 
pipes  G,  of  which,  according  to  the  size 
of  the  apparatus,  there  are  from  3  to  6, 
each  4  inches  in  diameter,  and  running 
parallel  to  each  other ;  the  products  of 
combustion  pass  through  them  in  the 
direction  of  the  arrows,  and  escape 
through  the  smoke-pipe  0  at  the  back 
of  the  apparatus.  The  fire-box  is  sur- 
rounded with  an  air-space  provided  at  Mwith  apertures.  Similar 
apertures  to  permit  the  entrance  of  cold  air  are  provided  on  the 
side  near  the  foot  of  the  brick  casing.  The  cold  air  comes  first 
in  contact  with  the  lower,  only  moderately  heated,  pipes,  then 
rises  to  the  second,  and  finally  to  the  third  and  hottest  series  of 
pipes.  It  is  thus  gradually  heated,  and  the  pipes  lying  close  to- 
gether, each  atom  of  air  comes  in  contact  with  them,  which  is  con- 
sidered a  better  mode  of  heating  than  by  radiation,  formerly  used. 
The  pipes  are  of  cast-iron,  and  an  escape  of  smoke  into  the  dry- 
ing-tower is  impossible.  By  always  keeping  the  pipes  clean, 
which -can  be  conveniently  done,  the  heat  passes  rapidly  through 
their  walls,  and  ascends  immediately  into  the  drying-tower  with- 
out the  possibility  of  super-heating. 


408  VINEGAR,    CIDER,    AND   FRUIT-WINES. 

The  draught-pipe  d  connects  the  exit  of  the  drying-tower  with 
the  fire-box  of  the  furnace.  The  importance  of  this  ventilation  is 
sufficiently  shown  by  the  statement  that  for  combustion  25,000 
cubic  feet  of  air  per  hour  are  required,  which  are  introduced  from 
the  neighborhood  of  the  opening  of  the  tower  through  the  pipe  d 
into  the  fire-box.  The  removal  of  such  a  considerable  quantity 
of  air  produces  a  vacuum  in  the  upper  portion  of  the  tower,  and 
consequently  a  very  quick  current  of  air  over  the  trays  of  fruit 
in  the  tower — an  absolute  requirement  for  attaining  great  perfec- 
tion in  the  art  of  drying  fruit  by  evaporation.  Besides,  a  saving 
of  fuel  is  effected  by  the  introduction  of  air  already  heated  into 
the  fire-box.  The  smoke-pipe  0  is  surrounded  by  a  wooden 
jacket  leaving  a  small  intermediate  space  in  which  the  heat  radi- 
ating from  the  pipe  collects,  and  is  forced  to  enter  the  tower  be- 
low the  discharge-door.  This  also  accelerates  the  current  of  air 
in  the  tower  and  prevents  the  condensation  of  the  moisture,  so 
that  the  fruit  completely  dries  off  in  a  short  time.  The  branch- 
pipe  /  connects  the  opening  of  the  tower  with  the  smoke-pipe, 
which  by  its  power  of  absorption  also  increases  the  current  of  air. 
The  <Jraught-pipe  c  is  provided,  as  will  be  readily  seen,  for  the 
purpose  of  uniformly  distributing  the  heat  in  the  tower. 

The  bulb  of  the  thermometer,  with  which  the  apparatus  is  pro- 
vided, is  placed  in  the  interior  of  the  tower  and  the  scale  on  the 
outside,  so  that  the  temperature  can  be  read  off  without  opening 
a  door,  whereby  cold  air  would  enter,  which  must  be  avoided. 
The  air-furnace  is  constructed  of  brick,  and  the  tower,  as  well  as 
the  draught-pipes  d  and  c  and  the  jacket  of  the  smoke-pipe  0,  of 
double  boards. 

The  hurdles  or  trays  for  the  fruit  consist  of  wooden  frames 
with  galvanized  iron  wire  bottoms.  They  hold  from  20  to  60 
Ibs.  of  fruit  each,  and  when  charged  are  pushed  through  the  door 
over  the  air-furnace  into  the  tower,  where  they  rest  upon  pins  of 
an  endless  chain  set  in  motion  by  a  wheel,  as  seen  in  the  illustra- 
tion. The  trays  sit  close  to  the  walls  on  two  sides  of  the  tower, 
while  in  the  other  direction  there  is  an  interspace  of  two  inches. 
The  first  tray  is  pushed  tight  against  the  back  wall,  the  men- 
tioned interspace  thus  remaining  in  front  of  the  door. 

After  six  to  ten  minutes,  according  to  the  variety  of  fruit,  the 


EVAPORATION   OF   FRUIT.  409 

tray  is  raised  five  inches  by  means  of  the  endless  chain  ;  the  second 
tray  is  then  placed  in  position,  but  so  that  the  above-mentioned 
intermediate  space  is  at  the  back  wall.  At  regular  intervals  the 
trays,  when  placed  in  position,  are  raised  by  the  endless  chain 
and  the  fresh  trays  pushed  in,  so  that  they  touch  alternately  the 
front  and  back  wall,  the  current  of  hot  air  being  thus  forced 
to  ascend  in  a  zigzag.  When  the  tower  is  filled  with  trays  it 
contains — taking  apples  as  an  example — from  1200  to  3000  Ibs. 
of  fruit,  every  50  Ibs.  of  each  yield  from  40  to  45  Ibs.  of  water, 
which  ascends  as  vapor,  which  by  surrounding  the  fruit  with  a 
moist  mantle  prevents  its  burning  and  keeps  the  pores  open. 
When  the  tray  first  placed  in  position  arrives  at  the  discharge- 
door  it  has  been  in  the  tower  for  about  five  hours,  and  its  contents 
have  been  converted  into  evaporated  fruit  which  will  keep  for 
many  years.  Thus  fruit  can  be  gathered,  evaporated,  and  sold 
all  in  one  day. 

By  considering  the  construction  of  the  tower  it  will  be  seen 
that  the  fruit  during  its  ascent  remains  in  a  uniform  moisture  and 
heat,  so  that  up  to  the  moment  it  is  taken  from  the  apparatus,  its 
content  of  water  can  escape  through  the  opened  pores  and,  on  the 
other  hand,  the  heat  can  act  to  its  very  centre.  A  uniform,  per- 
fect product  can  be  obtained  only  by  these  means.  When  the 
fruit  arrives  at  the  discharge-door  it  is  cool  and  as  soft  as  fresh 
fruit. 

We  will  here  call  attention  to  a  sun-drying  apparatus,  shown 
in  Fig.  77,  which  may  be  recommended  to  those  who  do  not 
wish  to  employ  artificial  heat,  and  are  forced  to  give  the  prefer- 
ence to  as  cheap  an  apparatus  as  possible.  The  apparatus  is  con- 
structed of  boards  and  window-glass.  The  board  walls,  which 
are  somewhat  inclined  outwardly,  project  above  the  panes  of 
glass  and  serve,  as  is  readily  seen,  for  catching  the  rays  of  the 
sun.  .They  are  lined  inside  with  tin,  thus  becoming  reflectors. 
The  side  door  serves  as  an  entrance  to  the  apparatus  when  the 
panes  of  glass  are  to  be  cleansed  or  repairs  are  to  be  made  in  the 
interior.  The  trays  containing  the  fruit  are  pushed  in  from  the 
back,  the  entrance  of  each  tray  being  covered  by  a  wooden  flap. 
According  to  the  size  of  the  apparatus  two  or  three  rows,  each 
consisting  of  twelve  trays,  are  placed  alongside  each  other.  Above 


410  VINEGAR,   CIDER,    AND   FRUIT- WINES. 

the  uppermost  entrances  for  the  trays  are  slides,  which  can  be 
opened  or  closed  according  to  whether  the  heat  in  the  interior  is 
to  be  increased  or  moderated. 

Fig.  77. 


The  apparatus  stands  upon  a  turn-table,  so  that  the  front  can 
from  morning  to  evening  be  exposed  to  the  full  rays  of  the  sun. 
When  the  latter  no  longer  reach  the  apparatus  the  reflectors, 
which  are  hinged,  are  laid  over  the  panes  of  glass,  which  pre- 
vents the  radiation  of  heat  and  protects  the  fruit  from  dew. 

The  time  required  for  drying  fruit  in  this  apparatus  cannot,  of 
course,  be  definitely  stated,  but  on  an  unclouded  hot  summer  day 
apples  pared  by  a  machine  can  be  dried  in  eight  hours.  The 
product  obtained  is  not  of  as  good  a  quality  as  evaporated  fruit, 
but  it  is  incomparably  superior  to  that  produced  by  the  primitive 
method  of  drying  in  the  open  air  or  in  the  oven. 

Referring  back  to  the  Alden  apparatus  previously  described,  it 
remains  to  be  said  that  there  are  a  number  of  other  evaporators 
based  upon  the  same  principle  but  with  various  modifications  and 
improvements. 

Fig.  78  shows  the  improved  Williams  evaporator  manufactured 
by  S.  E.  Sprout,  of  Muncy,  Pa.  The  apparatus  is  heated  by 
steam  radiators  located  at  the  base  of  the  vertical  tower,  and  has 
vertical  radiating  pipes  up  the  centre  of  the  vertical  tower,  around 
which  the  trays  of  fruit  revolve,  with  deflectors  at  intervals  of 
two  feet  projecting  from  each  side  of  said  pipes  to  direct  the  heat 


EVAPORATION   OF   FRUIT. 

Fig.  78. 


411 


under  the  trays  of  fruit  as  they  revolve  around  the  pipes.     (The 
trays  and  hanger  are  left  out  in  the  illustration  to  show  the  in- 


412 


AND    FRUIT-WINES. 


terior  arrangement  of  the  pipes.)  These  pipes  or  radiators  ex- 
tending up  the  tower  from  bottom  to  top  produce  a  uniform  heat 
the  entire  length  of  the  tower,  and  increase  the  draught  by  increas- 
ing the  heat  at  the  top,  which  produces  a  more  rapid  circulation 
than  when  the  heat  is  all  at  the  bottom,  as  with  the  hot-air  fur- 
nace ;  and  the  capacity  of  the  apparatus  is  also  increased  in  pro- 
portion to  the  increase  of  the  heat  and  the  draught  through  the 
tower.  The  trays  of  fruit  in  passing  up  the  tower  are  exposed 
from  one  side  to  the  pipes,  and  on  descending  are  exposed 
from  the  other,  which  causes  the  fruit  to  dry  uniformly.  The 
tower  being  vertical  the  heat  is  utilized  until  it  reaches  the 
top.  In  this  apparatus  a  very  strong  heat  can  be  had  through- 
out the  entire  length  of  the  tower,  without  incurring  any  risk  of 

Fig.  79. 


fire  from  sittings  from  the  trays,  when  drying  cores  and  skins, 
falling  on  the  hot-air  furnace,  which  is  always  placed  directly 
under  the  tower.  Several  sizes  of  this  evaporator  are  manufac- 
tured. 

Fig.  79  shows  the  American  fruit  evaporator,  several  sizes  of 


EVAPORATION   OF   FRUIT.  413 

which  are  manufactured  by  the  American  Manufacturing  Com- 
pany, of  Waynesboro,  Pa.  It  differs  from  the  preceding  in 
having  an  inclined  trunk.  The  advantages  claimed  for  it  by  the 
manufacturers  are  that  separate  currents  of  pure,  dry  air,  auto- 
matically created,  pass  underneath  and  diagonally  through  the 
trays  and  then  off  over  them,  carrying  the  moisture  out  of  the 
evaporator  without  coming  into  contact  with  the  contents  of  the 
trays  previously  entered.  The  greatest  heat  is  concentrated  upon 
each  tray  or  group  when  first  entered,  these  in  turn  being  moved 
forward  into  a  lower  temperature  by  those  entered  in  sequence, 
hence  no  steaming  or  cooking  becomes  possible.  The  evaporator 
shown  in  the  illustration  is  9 \  feet  long  and  28  inches  wide ;  it 
has  22  trays  of  galvanized  iron  cloth,  and  a  capacity  of  10  to  12 
bushels  of  apples  per  day.  It  consumes  about  80  pounds  of  coal 
or  its  equivalent  in  wood  or  coke.  The  furnace  supplies  strong 
currents  of  dry,  hot  air,  which  pass  through  the  two  chambers  of 
the  evaporator-trunk  and  carry  off  the  moisture  or  vapor  dis- 
charged from  the  fruit  over  and  above  the  line  of  trays  in  each 
chamber.  jSTo  steaming,  cooking,  or  retrograde  or  diffusive 
features  attend  the  operation.  The  trays  in  groups  of  two  at  a 
time  are  entered  in  front  in  the  upper  (hotter)  chamber  and 
moved  forward  by  insertion  of  the  next  group,  and  finished  in 
the  lower  chamber  and  at  a  lower  temperature.  Thus  the  process 
is  continuous,  and  each  tray  receives  the  same  treatment  and  con- 
ditions, viz.,  greatest  heat  when  first  inserted,  and  finishing  at  a 
gradually  lowering  temperature  and  safety  from  scorching.  The 
evaporators  are  manufactured  in  several  sizes  ranging  in  price 
from  $25  to  $450,  and  for  extensive  commercial  plants  with 
sundry  modifications  and  mechanism  for  coffee,  tea,  etc.,  of  great 
capacity  costing  $1000  and  upwards. 

The  manner  of  operating  the  Alden  apparatus  is  as  follows : 
The  maintenance  of  a  uniform  temperature  in  the  tower  being 
essential,  the  thermometer  should  indicate  194°  to  212°  F. ;  ber- 
ries and  stone  fruit  are  to  be  kept  somewhat  cooler.  The  intro- 
duction of  too  much  cold  air  into  the  air-furnace  must  be  avoided. 
As  a  rule  an  aperture  two  feet  square  suffices. 

The  upward  motion  of  the  trays  must  be  effected  at  regular  in- 
tervals. How  long  these  intervals  are  to  be  cannot  be  definitely 


414 


VINEGAR,   CIDER,   AND   FRUIT-WINES. 


stated,  it  depending  on  the  content  of  water  in  the  fruit  and  on 
the  temperature  of  the  tower.  The  following  table  may,  how- 
ever, serve  as  a  guide  : — 


interval     6  to  10  minutes. 


8 

12 

12 

20 

15 

20 

8 

15 

10 

20 

10 

20 

6 

8 

5 

7 

12 

20 

20 

25 

Apples 

Pears 

Peaches 

Stoned  plums 

Apricots 

Stoned  cherries    . 

Berries 

Potatoes 

Green  corn 

Onions 

Tomatoes 


It  is  supposed  that  the  temperature  directly  above  the  air-fur- 
nace is  212°  F.,  and  it  is  best  to  keep  it  that  degree  except  for 
berries  and  stoned  fruit,  for  which  it  may  be  from  41°  to  50°  less. 
As  previously  stated,  it  is  an  essential  condition  that  the  fruit 
should  not  boil.  This  will,  however,  not  be  the  case  at  the  tem- 
perature mentioned  because  the  fruit  remains  too  short  a  time  in 
it,  and  in  rising  upwards  meets  a  somewhat  more  moderate  heat. 
As  a  rule  it  may  be  said  that  as  high  a  temperature  as  possible  is 
most  advantageous  provided  boiling  be  avoided. 

The  evaporated  fruit  when  taken  from  the  tower  is  spread  out 
in  an  airy  room,  where  it  remains  for  a  few  hours  to  dry  off. 
Care  must  be  had  that  during  this  time  it  does  not  come  in  contact 
with  insects,  and  to  prevent  this  the  windows  and  air-holes  must 
be  provided  with  screens  or  the  fruit  covered  with  musquito 
netting.  The  fruit  when  ready  for  packing  is  put  up  in  boxes  as 
follows :  Line  the  box  with  colored  paper  with  the  ends  pro- 
jecting above  the  edge.  Then  fill  the  box  with  fruit;  kernel 
fruit  is  piled  up  about  one  inch  above  the  edge  of  the  box  while 
stone  fruit  is  not  piled  so  high,  it  being  subsequently  not  subjected 
to  pressure.  To  press  down  the  contents  even  with  the  edge  of 
the  box  a  weight,  or,  still  better,  a  press  is  used.  After  pressing 
fold  the  ends  of  the  paper  over  the  fruit,  nail  down  the  lid,  and 
put  on  the  label. 

Sliced  evaporated  apples  are  packed  as  follows  :  Line  the  box 
with  white  paper,  one  piece  on  the  bottom  and  four  pieces  on  the 


EVAPORATION   OF   FRUIT.  415 

sides  long  enough  to  fold  over.  Then  nail  down  the  lid,  take  off 
the  bottom,  and  commence  packing  by  placing  one  layer  of  slices 
in  the  manner  of  roof-tiles.  Sufficient  fruit  to  make  up  the  re- 
quired weight  is  then  piled  in,  and  after  pressing  down  the  box  is 
nailed  up  and  labelled.  A  general  rule  as  regards  weight  has  not 
been  introduced,  though  in  California  all  varieties  of  evaporated 
fruit  are  packed  in  boxes  holding  50  pounds  net. 

Now  a  few  words  in  regard  to  the  varieties  of  fruit  to  be  used.  To 
be  sure  every  kind  of  fruit  can  be  evaporated,  but  poor  qualities 
remain  bad  after  evaporation.  No  one  who  wishes  to  be  success- 
ful in  the  business  should  for  one  moment  entertain  the  idea  that 
fruit  unpalatable  in  a  fresh  state  is  good  enough  for  evaporating. 
For  commercial  purposes  the  selection  of  varieties  must  be  made 
as  carefully  as  for  fresh  fruit,  or,  briefly  stated,  only  table  fruit 
should  be  evaporated,  this  referring  especially  to  apples  and  pears, 
of  which  the  mellow  and  luscious  varieties  alone  should  be  se- 
lected. The  intelligently  conducted  evaporating  establishments  in 
this  country  are  very  careful  in  this  respect,  they  having  like  the 
canning  establishments  certain  favorites,  for  instance,  of  apples, 
the  Gravenstein,  Red  Astrachan,  Autumn  Pippin,  Newtown  Pip- 
pin, Bellflower,  Baldwin,  Northern  Spy ;  of  pears,  the  Bartlett, 
Autumn  Butler  Pear,  Clapp's  Favorite ;  of  plums,  Reine  Claude, 
Coe's  Golden  Drop,  Columbia,  Washington  ;  of  cherries,  Royal 
Ann  and  Elton.  No  discrimination  is  made  in  regard  to  berries, 
peaches,  and  apricots,  all  varieties  being  used. 

Apples  should  be  pared  with  a  machine  and  sliced.  So  many 
different  styles  of  apple  parers  are  in  the  market  that  it  is  diffi- 
cult to  say  which  is  the  best.  One  which  pares,  cores,  and  slices 
the  apple  at  one  operation  should  be  selected.  Pears  are  better 
pared  by  hand,  and  peaches  with  a  rotary  knife  parer. 

Stone-fruit  is  sometimes  stoned,  which  is  effected  with  the  well 
known  stoning  machine,  but  as  the  different  kinds  of  machines  in 
the  market  are  by  no  means  perfect,  it  is  best  for  prime  ware  to 
remove  the  stones  by  hand  until  some  ingenious  head  invents  a 
machine  which  will  bruise  the  fruit  as  little  as  the  human  hand. 

Apples  and  pears  when  pared  acquire  a  brown  coloration,  which 
is  not  lost  by  drying  no  matter  by  what  method.  Now  how  is  it 
that  many  apples  and  pears  of  a  white  yellow  or  pale  yellow 


416  VINEGAR,    CIDER,    AND   FRUIT- WINES. 

color  are  brought  into  the  market  ?  The  color  has  nothing  to  do 
with  the  quality  of  the  product,  but  its  sale  depending  on  its  ap- 
pearance the  apples  and  pears  are  bleached  before^  evaporating. 
The  process  is  very  simple  :  a  number  of  trays  are  placed  on  top 
of  each  other,  and  a  bundle  of  sulphur  matches  ignited  under 
them.  Sometimes  lime  is  slacked  under  such  a  pile  of  trays,  the 
fruit  being  in  both  cases  bleached  by  the  ascending  vapors.  Others 
again  place  the  fruit  for  some  time  in  a  water-bath  impregnated 
with  sulphur.  These  methods  are  mentioned,  not  to  recommend 
them,  but  rather  to  warn  against  them,  and,  besides,  because  it  is 
frequently  believed  that  the  pale  color  of  the  fruit  is  due  to  a 
more  perfect  method  of  drying.  The  use  of  sulphur  for  this 
purpose  deserves  censure,  it  being  injurious  to  health,  and  the  con- 
sumer should  prefer  naturally  colored  evaporated  fruit  to  the 
bleached  article,  which  is  readily  recognized  by  its  pale  color. 
There  is  but  one  method  leading  to  the  same  result  which  can  be 
unhesitatingly  used,  that  is,  to  throw  the  fruit  when  pared  into 
salt  water,  where  it  is  allowed  to  remain  until  placed  in  the  trays. 
The  color  is  not  as  pale  as  that  obtained  by  bleaching,  but  it  is 
more  natural  which,  in  our  opinion,  is  an  advantage.  Decay  set- 
ting in  immediately  after  the  fruit  is  cut,  it  should  be  brought 
into  the  evaporating  tower  as  soon  as  possible.  A  warm  salt- 
water bath  is  also  frequently  used  for  stone  fruit  which  is  to  be 
evaporated  without  removing  the  stones,  in  order  to  better  retain 
its  natural  appearance.  The  same  purpose  can,  however,  be 
better  attained  by  the  use  of  a  bath  of  lukewarm  or  cold  alum 
water,  which  can  also  be  advantageously  employed  in  preserving 
the  fruit  in  jars  and  cans.  Plums  after  evaporating  are  generally 
brought  into  a  bath  of  sugar-water  in  order  to  give  them  the  lus- 
trous and  uniformly  dark  appearance  observed  in  French  prunes. 
For  this  purpose  brown  sugar  is  dissolved  in  an  equal  quantity 
of  hot  water,  and  the  prunes  in  a  wire  basket  submerged  in  the 
bath  for  half  a  minute.  They  are  then  spread  out  upon  hurdles 
and  packed  when  perfectly  dry. 

The  trays  which  are  to  be  placed  in  the  evaporating  tower 
must  not  be  loaded  too  heavily  with  fruit.  Stone-fruit  not  freed 
from  the  stones  js  placed  close  together  with  the  stem  end  upwards, 
but  only  in  one  layer.  Quartered  or  halved  stoned-fruit,  as  well 


EVAPORATION   OF   FRUIT.  417 

as  sliced  apples,  are  placed  close  together  edge  upward  until  the 
bottom  of  the  tray  is  covered.  Sliced  pears  are  arranged  in  a 
similar  manner.  Of  berries  several  layers  an  inch  deep  may  be 
made,  but  they  must  be  covered  with  tissue-paper.  Grapes  are 
but  seldom  converted  into  raisins  in  the  evaporating  apparatus, 
because  the  process  would  require  40  hours,  it  being  impossible  to 
use  a  temperature  exceeding  176°  F.  Hence  it  is  considered  more 
advantageous  to  dry  grapes  in  the  sun.  For  the  northern  limits 
of  grape-culture  the  evaporating  process  for  raisins  may,  however, 
prove  of  great  importance  if  only  for  supplying  the  home  market, 
especially  when  experience  shows,  as  it  has  during  the  last 
few  years  in  California,  that  the  production  pays  on  an  average 
better  than  that  of  wine.  It  need  only  be  remembered  that  the 
principal  producers  of  raisins,  the  Spaniards  and  Greeks,  are 
entirely  dependent  on  the  weather,  which  frequently  causes  them 
heavy  losses.  The  evaporating  apparatus,  however,  makes  the 
manufacturer  independent  of  the  weather,  and  no  Spanish  or  Greek 
sun  is  required  for  the  production  of  excellent  raisins. 

Tomatoes  are  peeled  but  not  sliced,  and  placed  close  together 
in  one  layer  in  the  trays.  Pumpkins  are  peeled  and  cut  in  pieces 
two  or  three  inches  thick.  For  several  years  a  flour  has  been  made 
from  the  dried  pieces  which  serves  as  a  substitute  for  rice  flour. 
Sweet  potatoes  are  treated  in  a  similar  manner,  their  flour  serving 
as  a  substitute  for  chicory. 

Green  corn  is  first  steamed  on  the  ear  for  not  more  than  five 
minutes.  The  grains  are  then  picked  off,  placed  in  two-inch  deep 
layers  in  the  trays  and  thoroughly  evaporated,  but  not  at  too  high 
a  temperature,  185°  to  194°  F.  being  sufficient.  When  dry  it 
is  rubbed  and  passed  through  a  fanning-mill  to  remove  the  hulls 
loosened  by  rubbing.  It  is  packed  in  boxes  holding  10,  20,  and 
50  Ibs.  each,  and  brings  wholesale  from  10  to  12  cents  per  pound. 

The  following  must  also  be  steamed  before  evaporating  :  green 
peas  and  beans,  asparagus,  beets,  carrots,  lettuce,  cabbage,  and 
parsnips.  Vegetables  are  cut  up  with  a  cabbage-cutter,  and  roots 
in  slices  like  apples. 

Onions  are  first  freed  from  their  external  red  or  yellow  peel  and 
then  cut  into  slices  one-fourth  inch  thick  with  a  cabbage-cutter.  The 
slices  are  steamed  for  five  minutes,  which,  with  a  suitable  steaming 
27 


418  VINEGAR,   CIDER,    AND    FRUIT- WINES. 

apparatus,  is  best  effected  by  spreading  the  slices  in  a  two-inch  deep 
layer  in  the  trays,  placing  the  latter  in  the  steaming  apparatus,  and 
immediately  after  the  above  mentioned  time  in  the  evaporator. 
They  are  packed  in  tin  boxes  holding  50  Ibs.  each,  which  are 
placed  in  a  wooden  box.  By  evaporation,  100  Ibs.  of  onions  are 
reduced  to  12  ibs.  The  average  wholesale  price  is  about  30 
cents  per  pound. 

Potatoes  must  be  thoroughly  washed.  This  is  best  effected  in 
a  cradle,  the  bottom  of  which  is  provided  with  wide  perforations 
so  that  the  water  constantly  pouring  in  can  run  off  quickly.  The 
potatoes  are  then  placed  in  trays,  and  from  four  to  six  of  the  latter, 
according  to  the  size  of  the  steaming  apparatus,  brought  into  the 
boiler.  Steam  is  then  admitted,  and  after  35  minutes  the  potatoes 
are  taken  out,  care  being  had,  however,  not  to  steam  them  much, 
as  otherwise  they  become  of  no  value  for  the  evaporating  process. 
The  loosened  peels  are  then  rubbed  off  with  the  hand,  and  the 
peeled  potatoes  brought  into  a  press,  the  bottom  of  which  consists 
of  a  perforated  wooden  plate  or  of  woven  wire.  The  lid  must  fit 
tight  to  the  interior  walls  of  the  press,  so  that  the  entire  mass  of 
potatoes  falls  coarsely  crushed  through  the  bottom.  The  crushed 
potatoes  are  placed  in  layers  two  or  three  inches  deep  in  the  trays 
and  levelled  with  an  instrument  made  by  driving  small  nails  into  a 
board  so  that  their  points  project  one-half  inch.  They  are  then 
evaporated  at  not  too  high  a  temperature — 185°  F.  is  sufficient — 
to  prevent  scorching;  taking  care,  however,  to  dry  them  through. 
The  evaporated  mass  is  coarsely  ground  in  a  suitable  mill,  and  the 
resulting  flour  packed  in  zinc  canisters,  holding  28  and  56  Ibs. 
each.  Two  such  canisters  are  placed  in  a  wooden  box,  and  are 
then  ready  for  shipment. 

It  is  of  the  utmost  importance  to  select  only  perfectly  sound 
potatoes  and  remove  all  which  sour  or  are  injured  in  any  other 
way  during  the  process.  Success  depends  on  the  rapidity  and 
regularity  from  the  commencement  to  the  end  of  the  process.  All 
potatoes  which  become  cold  before  being  brought  into  the  evapo- 
rating apparatus  are  worthless,  and  the  same  may  be  said  of  those 
which  have  been  steamed  too  long ;  they  are  converted  into  paste. 

From  a  statement  by  an  English  commission  house,  in  reference 
to  a  shipment  of  evaporated  potatoes  from  the  Pacific  coast,  it  was 


EVAPORATION    OF   FRUIT.  419 

learned  that  the  price  obtained  was  40  shillings  for  110  Ibs.  The 
commission,  freight,  etc.,  of  the  entire  shipment  of  20  boxes,  each 
containing  108  Ibs.  net,  amounted  to  £5  1/w.  Id.  Annexed  to 
the  statement  was  the  following  suggestion  :  The  potatoes  should 
be  packed  in  canisters  holding  5(j  Ibs.  and  made  of  black  sheet- 
iron  painted  red  on  the  outside.  In  the  top  should  be  a  round 
hole  large  enough  to  admit  the  hand,  and  closed  by  a  slide.  A 
large  label  with  the  words  "  Preserved  Vegetables"  should  be 
pasted  on  the  side  of  the  canisters. 

The  bushel  of  potatoes  in  an  evaporated  state  and   ready  for 
shipment  costs  about  50  cents. 

In  conclusion  it  remains  to  say  a  few  words  about  drying  fruit 
in  the  oven,  and  we  describe  the  French  method,  which  is  decidedly 
the  best,  as  proved  by  the  prunes  brought  into  market  from  that 
country.  The  prunes  having  been  sorted  by  a  machine  into  three 
qualities  are  placed  upon  trays  and  exposed  to  the  sun  until  the 
skin  commences  to  shrivel.  They  are  then  placed  in  a  bake-oven 
previously  used  for  baking  bread.  If  no  bread  is  to  be  baked, 
the  oven  is  very  moderately  heated  to  prevent  the  rapid  (dosing  of 
the  pores  and  the  formation  of  a  crust  upon  the  surface.  They  are 
allowed  to  remain  in  the  oven  for  12  hours  when  they  are  taken 
out,  and  when  perfectly  cold,  moistened  with  alum  water  and  re- 
placed in  the  oven,  which  must  now  be  somewhat  hotter.  After 
12  hours  they  are  again  taken  out,  moistened  with  alum  water, 
and  replaced  for  the  third  and  last  time,  together  with  a  dish  full 
of  water,  in  the  oven  which  must  now  be  still  hotter  than  before. 
The  prunes  when  taken  from  the  oven  are  submerged  fora  short 
time  in  a  bath  of  sugar-water,  and  are  then  packed  in  boxes.  It 
will  be  seen  that  this  process  is  quite  tedious,  and  the  product  as 
shown  at  the  Paris  Exhibition  is  not  as  good  as  that  obtained  by 
evaporation. 

Besides  prunes  the  French  bring  into  market  dried  pears,  which 
have  also  become  celebrated.  The  process  is  as  follows  :  Fine 
table-pears  are  pared,  quartered,  and  boiled  in  sugar  syrup  ior 
five  minutes.  They  are  then  placed  in  a  moderately  warm  oven, 
where  they  remain  for  12  hours  ;  they  are  then  taken  out,  allowed 
to  cool  off,  and  replaced  in  the  oven,  which  must  now  be  hotter 
than  the  first  time,  until  sufficiently  dried. 


420  VINEGAR,    CIDER,   AND   FRUIT-WINES. 

The  French  method  can  be  recommended,  but  it  would  be  still 
better  if  it  were  executed  in  the  improved  manner  practised  here 
and  there  in  central  England  and  in  the  New  England  States. 
This  improvement  consists  in  the  previous  boiling  of  the  fruit, 
which  must,  however,  not  be  continued  longer  than  five  minutes. 
The  fruit  is  not  gradually  heated  but  submerged  in  boiling  water 
for  five  minutes,  and,  without  being  allowed  to  cool,  brought  at 
once  into  a  moderately  hot  oven.  Steaming  instead  of  boiling 
the  fruit  is  still  better.  It  should  be  exposed  to  the  steam  for 
not  longer  than  five  minutes,  and  must  then  as  quickly  as  possible 
be  brought  into  a  moderately  hot  oven. 


CHAPTER  XXXI. 

PREPARATION   OF   PICKLES   AND  MUSTARD. 

Pickles. — Enormous  quantities  of  pickles  are  brought  into  com- 
merce, especially  by  American  and  English  factories.  The  most 
remarkable  varieties  are  piccalilli  or  Indian  pickles,  mixed  pickles, 
and  walnut  pickles.  The  packing  is  always  the  same ;  some  of 
the  oldest  and  largest  English  factories  still  adhere  to  stoneware 
pots,  which  have  the  advantage  of  entirely  excluding  the  light 
from  the  product,  thus  contributing  to  its  keeping  quality.  Both 
the  French  and  Americans  use  glass  bottles,  the  chief 'difference 
being  in  the  diameter  of  the  mouth,  which  is  smaller  in  the 
American  bottles.  The  latter  style  is  to  be  preferred,  because  in 
the  former  the  pickles,  when  frequently  opened,  are  more  exposed 
to  the  air  than  is  good  for  them.  Stone  pots,  which  are  no  doubt 
best  for  family  use,  are  too  expensive  for  commercial  purposes,  not 
only  as  regards  the  first  cost,  but  also  on  account  of  their  weight, 
which  increases  the  cost  of  transportation.  The  bottles  are  always 
provided  with  neat  labels,  and  the  corks  generally  covered  with 
tin-foil. 

The  following  general  rules  apply  to  the  preparation  of  pickles  : 
The  best  quality  of  fruit  must  be  gathered  at  the  right  time, 
washed  in  fresh  cold  well-water,  and  placed  for  some  time  in 


PREPARATION   OF   PICKLES   AND    MUSTARD.  421 

strong  brine.  They  are  then  laid  upon  fruit  hurdles  to  com- 
pletely dry  in  the  air,  and  finally  brought  into  the  bottles  which 
must  be  nearly  filled.  The  interspaces  are  then  filled  up  with 
hot-spiced  vinegar,  and  the  bottles  immediately  corked,  and,  when 
cold,  sealed.  Strong  vinegar  must  be  used,  the  manufacturers  gen- 
erally employing  wine-vinegar,  known  in  commerce  as  No.  24. 
Fruit-vinegar,  clarified  and  spiced  and  evaporated  to  three- 
fourths  its  volume,  also  answers  very  well.  Pickles  for  immediate 
use  are  soaked  in  hot  brine,  but  as  a  commercial  article  they  must 
be  treated  with  cold  brine  only.  Moreover,  hot  brine  must  not  be 
used  for  fruits  of  a  soft  and  juicy  nature  such  as  cabbage  and  cauli- 
flower ;  and  besides  cold  or  only  slightly  heated  vinegar  should  be 
poured  over  such  articles.  Soft  and  delicate  fruits  must,  as  a  rule, 
not  remain  as  long  in  the  brine  as  hard  and  coarse-fibred  ones  ;  and 
the  softest  are  most  advantageously  pickled  by  pouring  cold  spiced 
vinegar  over  them.  The  same  may  be  said  of  red  beets  and  other 
roots  which  are  cut  into  strips.  Sometimes  the  spice  is  put  whole 
into  the  bottle,  but  it  is  better  and  more  economical  to  bring  it 
powdered  into  the  vinegar  while  heating  the  latter,  or  if  the 
vinegar  is  to  be  used  cold,  to  previously  boil  the  powdered  spice 
in  a  small  portion  of  the  vinegar,  and  when  cold  add  it  to  the 
rest.  The  spiced  vinegar  is  prepared  as  follows  : — 

To  1  quart  of  vinegar  add  2-J  ounces  of  salt,  J  ounce  of  black 
pepper,  and  2J  ounces  of  ginger.  Let  the  mixture  boil  up  once 
or  twice  in  an  enamelled  iron  pot,  filter  through  a  flannel  cloth, 
and  pour  the  liquid,  hot  or  cold,  over  the  fruits. 

For  a  more  strongly  spiced  vinegar  reduce  in  a  mortar  2  ounces 
of  black  pepper,  1  ounce  of  ginger,  and  J  drachm  of  cayenne 
pepper,  and  for  walnuts,  1  ounce  of  eschalots,  and  add  to  the  mix- 
ture in  a  stoneware  pot  1  pint  of  vinegar,  and  tie  up  the  pot  with 
a  bladder.  Place  the  pot  for  three  days  near  the  fire,  shaking  it 
several  times,  and  then  pour  the  contents  upon  the  fruits  by  al- 
lowing it  to  run  through  a  filtering  cloth. 

In  the  preparation  of  pickles  the  use  of  metallic  vessels  must  be 
avoided,  the  vinegar  as  well  as  the  brine  dissolving  copper,  brass, 
and  zinc,  and  becoming  thereby  poisonous.  Ordinary  earthen 
pots  should  also  be  mistrusted.  Stoneware  pots,  which  can  be 
heated  in  a  water-bath  or  upon  a  stove,  are  best  for  the  purpose. 


422  VINEGAR,    CIDER,    AND   FRUIT-WINES. 

Moreover,  air  and  light  must  be  kepi  away  from  the  pickles  as 
much  as  possible,  and  they  should  be  touched  only  with  wooden 
or  bone  spoons.  An  essential  condition  for  success  is  to  treat  the 
fruits  immediately  after  being  gathered.  The  method  of  some 
manufacturers,  who  add  verdigris  to  the  pickles  or  boil  the  vine- 
gar in  a  copper  boiler  until  it  is  sufficiently  "  greenish"  to  com- 
municate its  green  color  to  the  product,  cannot  be  too  strongly 
condemned.  That  this  crime  against  the  health  of  the  consumer 
is  unfortunately  committed  to  a  considerable  extent,  is  conclusively 
proved  by  numerous  chemical  examinations  recently  made  in  the 
large  cities  of  Europe  and  the  United  States,  and  undertaken  with 
the  laudable  purpose  of  bringing  the  adulterators  of  food  to  jus- 
tice. Many  of  the  pickles  in  the  market,  and  most  of  the  im- 
ported canned  peas,  contain  copper,  and  this  notwithstanding  the 
fact  that  there  are  very  innocent  means  for  coloring  pickles  green, 
it  being  only  necessary  to  put  a  handful  of  spinach  or  wine  leaves 
in  the  boiling  vinegar  which  acquires  thereby  a  green  coloration 
and  communicates  it  later  on  to  the  pickles. 

The  following  list  comprises  the  fruits  which  are  chiefly  used 
for  the  preparation  of  pickles  in  factories  : — 

Barberries. — The  berries  are  gathered  before  they  are  ripe  and 
washed  with  salt  water.  The  vinegar  is  added  cold. 

Beans. — Cold  vinegar  is  poured  over  the  young  pods,  previously 
soaked  in  cold  water. 

Cabbage ,  red  and  white. — The  heads  are  cut  up  into  fine  strips 
which  are  placed  in  a  strong  brine  for  two  days,  then  dried  upon 
hurdles  for  12  hours,  next  brought  into  bottles,  and  after  pouring 
cold  vinegar  upon  them,  at  once  sealed  up. 

Cauliflower. — The  heads  are  broken  up  into  small  pieces  which 
are  placed  in  brine,  and  finally  treated  with  hot  vinegar. 

Cucumbers. — Young  cucumbers  are  placed  in  salt  water  for  one 
week.  The  brine  is  then  poured  of!  and  after  being  made  boiling 
hot  is  poured  back  over  the  cucumbers.  The  next  day  the  cu- 
cumbers are  dried  upon  a  sieve,  slightly  rubbed  off  with  cloth,  and 
then  boiling  vinegar  is  poured  over  them. 

Elderberry  flowers. — The  umbels  are  gathered  just  before  the 
flowers  open,  and  treated  in  the  same  manner  as  cauliflower.  These 
pickles  are  much  liked  in  England. 


PREPARATION   OF   PICKLES   AND   MUSTARD.  423 

English  bamboo. — Young  elder  shoots  are  freed  from  the  bark, 
placed  in  a  brine  for  12  hours,  and  after  drying  brought  into  bot- 
tles, and  hot  vinegar  is  poured  over  them.  They  are  highly  es- 
teemed as  an  addition  to  boiled  mutton. 

Gooseberries. — The  unripe  fruits  are  treated  like  cauliflower. 

Mixed  pickles. — Components  :  White  cabbage,  cauliflower,  bean 
pods,  cucumber,  onions.  They  are  prepared  like  cucumbers. 

Mushrooms. — Wash  young  mushrooms  the  size  of  coat  buttons 
in  cold  water,  and  carefully  dry  them  with  a  cloth.  Then  put 
them  into  a  bottle,  and  pour  boiling  vinegar  over  them. 

Onions. — Small  onions  are  peeled,  and  hot  vinegar  is  poured 
over  them ;  sometimes  the  onions  are  previously  placed  in  brine 
for  one  day. 

Peaches. — The  fruits,  not  entirely  ripe,  are  treated  like  cucum- 
bers. 

Peas  are  treated  like  beans  and  cauliflower. 

PicaliUy. — Take  one  head  of  white  cabbage  cut  up  into  fine 
strips,  2  heads  of  cauliflower  broken  into  small  pieces,  some  bean 
pods,  1  root  of  horseradish  cut  into  strips,  2  dozen  of  small  white 
onions,  and  1  dozen  small  cucumbers  ;  pour  boiling  brine  over 
them,  and  dry  them  the  next  day  upon  a  sieve.  Then  put  the 
mixture  into  a  pot  and  add  garlic,  ginger,  mustard-seed,  all 
comminuted,  of  each  1  ounce,  capers  J  ounce,  red  pepper  \  ounce, 
and  pour  boiling  vinegar  over  it.  Tie  up  the  pot  with  a  bladder, 
let  it  stand  for  4  weeks,  shaking  it  occasionally,  and  then  distrib- 
ute the  contents  into  bottles. 

Tomatoes  must  not  be  entirely  ripe ;  they  may  be  even  green 
and  half  grown.  They  are  pickled  in  the  same  manner  as 
cucumbers. 

Walnuts. — Place  the  young,  soft  nuts  in  strong  brine  for  one 
week,  then  dry  upon  a  sieve  and  pour  hot  vinegar  over  them.  A 
better  method  is  to  expose  the  walnuts,  after  they  have  been  in 
the  brine  for  nine  days,  upon  a  cloth  to  the  sun  until  they  are  black, 
and  then  put  them  into  bottles,  which  are  filled  up  with  hot 
vinegar.  These  pickles  are  much  liked  with  fish,  and  when  well 
sealed  and  stored  in  a  dark  place  keep  for  ten  years.  If  they  are 
to  be  used  in  the  first  three  months  after  being  made,  the  brine 
must  be  heated  for  one  hour. 


424  VINEGAR,    CIDER,    AND   FRUIT-WINES. 

Mustard. — Mustard  of  commerce  is  the  seed,  whole  or  ground, 
of  several  species  of  the  genus  Brassica,  cruciferous  plants  which 
grow  wild  and  are  cultivated  under  very  various  conditions.  The 
two  common  varieties  are  the  black  or  brown  mustard,  which  has 
a  very  small  seed,  and  furnishes  the  most  aroma,  and  the  white, 
which  is  two  or  three  times  as  large,  often  used  in  the  whole 
condition  in  pickles  and  ground,  either  by  itself  or  oftener  in 
mixture  with  the  brown  seed,  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining  the 
desirable  qualities  of  both. 

The  most  rational  manner  of  preparing  mustard  for  table  use 
has  been  introduced  into  the  English  factories.  The  seed  is  freed 
from  the  husk,  ground  to  flour,  and  the  fat  oil,  which  can  be  used 
as  an  illuminating  oil,  pressed  out.  Generally  speaking,  the 
preparation  of  mustard  consists  in  several  times  grinding  in  a 
mill  a  mixture  of  white  and  brown  mustard  with  an  addition  of 
wine-must,  either  fresh  or  strongly  boiled  down,  or  of  wine  vine- 
gar until  it  forms  a  moderately  fine  or  very  fine  pasty  mass,  and 
adding  different  substances  as  a  seasoning.  In  the  Diisseldorf 
mustard  the  seasoning  consists  of  cinnamon,  cloves,  and  sugar,  in 
the  Frankfort  mustard  of  cloves,  allspice,  and  sugar,  in  the  Eng- 
lish mustard  of  wheat  flour,  common  salt,  and  pepper,  and  in  the 
French  mustard  of  tarragon,  ginger,  cinnamon,  thyme,  marjoram, 
onions,  garlic,  cloves,  etc.  An  addition  of  flour  is  almost  gener- 
ally made,  as  it  modifies  the  sharpness  of  the  mustard  and  holds 
the  mass  better  together.  The  quantity  of  the  constituents  vary ; 
the  usual  proportions  being  from  20  to  30  per  cent,  of  white,  and 
5  to  10  per  cent,  of  brown  ground  mustard,  1  to  2  per  cent,  of 
common  salt,  J  to  J  per  cent,  of  pulverized  spices,  and  40  to  50 
per  cent,  of  must  or  vinegar.  According  to  the  English  method 
the  use  of  mustard-seed  freed  from  oil  is  only  recommended.  In 
the  following  a  few  special  receipts  are  given  : — 

Gumpoldskirchner  must-mustard. — Evaporate  30  quarts  of 
freshly  pressed  wine-must  to  one-half  its  volume  over  a  moderate 
fire,  dissolve  in  it  5  Ibs.  of  sugar,  and  strain  the  whole  over  2  or 
3  roots  of  horseradish  cut  in  thin  slices.  Then  add  in  the  form 
of  fine  powder,  cardamoms  0.35  oz.,  nutmeg  0.35  oz.,  cloves 
0.63  oz.,  cinnamon  1  oz.,  ginger  1  oz.,  mustard-seed,  ground 


PREPARATION    OF   PICKLES   AND    MUSTARD.  425 

and  freed  from  oil,  brown  6  Ibs.  and  white  11  Ibs.  Grind  the 
whole  several  times  in  a  mill  and  strain. 

Moutard  des  Jesuites. — Make  a  paste  of  12  sardines  and  280 
capers,  and  stir  it  into  53  ozs.  of  boiling  vinegar,  and  mix  with  it 
ground  mustard-seed  freed  from  oil,  brown  5J  ozs.  and  white 
14J  ozs. 

French  mustard. — Ground  mustard  2  Ibs.,  and  J  oz.  each  of  fresh 
parsley  and  tarragon,  both  cut  up  fine  are  thoroughly  mixed 
together;  further  1  clove  of  garlic,  also  cut  up  very  fine,  and  12 
salted  anchovies.  Grind  the  mixture  very  fine,  add  the  required 
must,  and  1  oz.  of  pulverized  common  salt,  and  for  further  grind- 
ing dilute  with  water.  To  evaporate  the  water  after  grinding  the 
mustard,  heat  an  iron  red  hot  and  cool  it  off  in  the  mixture,  and 
then  add  wine  vinegar  of  the  best  quality. 

Ordinary  mustard. — I.  Stir  gradually  1  pint  of  good  white 
wine  into  8  ozs.  of  ground  mustard-seed,  add  a  pinch  of  pulve- 
rized cloves,  and  let  the  whole  boil  over  a  moderate  fire.  Then 
add  a  small  lump  of  white  sugar,  and  let  the  mixture  boil  up 
once  more. 

II.  Pour  J  pint  of  boiling  wine  vinegar  over  8  ozs.  of  ground 
mustard-seed  in  an  earthen  pot,  stir  the  mixture  thoroughly,  then 
add  some  cold  vinegar,  and  let  the  pot  stand  over  night  in  a  warm 
place.     The  next  morning  add  J  Ib.  of  sugar,  f  drachm  of  pul- 
verized  cinnamon,    f    drachm  of  pulverized  cloves,  1J  drachm 
of  pepper,  some  cardamom  and  nutmeg,  half  the  rind  of  a  lemon 
and  the  necessary   quantity  of  vinegar.     The  mustard  is  now 
ready,  and  is  kept  in  pots  tied  up  with  bladder. 

III.  Pound  in  a  mortar  the  flesh  of  a  salt  herring,  and  2  ozs. 
of  capers  to  a  paste,  and  mix  this  with  2  ozs.  of  pulverized  white 
sugar  and  13  ozs.  of  ground  mustard  seed ;  then  pour  If  pint  of 
boiling  wine  vinegar  over  it,  stir,  and  let  the  whole  stand  near  a 
fire  for  several  hours.     Finally  add  f  pint  of  boiling  vinegar, 
stir  thoroughly  and  pour  the  mustard  into  glass  bottles. 

Frankfort  mustard — Mix  1  Ib.  of  white  mustard-seed,  ground, 
a  like  quantity  of  brown  mustard-seed,  8  ozs.  of  pulverized  sugar, 
1  oz.  of  pulverized  cloves,  2  ozs.  of  allspice,  and  compound  the 
mixture  with  white-wine  or  wine-vinegar, 

Wine  mustard. — Ground  mustard-seed,  white,  23  ozs.,  brown 


426  VINEGAR,    CIDER,    AND    FRUIT-WINES. 

12  ozs.,  common  salt  2f  ozs.,  wine-vinegar  8J  ozs.,  a  like  quantity 
of  white-wine,  and  water  16  ozs. 

Aromatic,  or  hygienic  mustard. — Ground  mustard-seed,  white  23 
ozs.,  brown  12  ozs.,  wine-vinegar  17 J  ozs.  Extract  allspice  0.35 
oz.,  cassia,  white  pepper,  and  ginger  of  each  0.17  oz.,  with  alcohol 
1J  oz.,  and  water  8J  ozs.,  add  3J  ozs.  of  common  salt  and  a  like 
quantity  of  sugar,  filter  the  whole  and  add  it  to  the  mustard. 

Diisseldorf  mustard.  —  Ground  mustard-seed  freed  from  oil, 
brown  3  ozs.,  white  8J  ozs.,  boiling  water  26J  ozs.,  wine-vine- 
gar 18  ozs.,  cinnammon  0.17  oz.,  cloves  0.1  oz.,  sugar  11  ozs., 
white-wine  18  ozs. 

Sour  Dusseldorf  mustard. — Fill  2  casks  with  vinegar,  steep  in 
one  of  the  casks  2  Ibs.  of  origan  leaves,  and  in  the  other  an  ordi- 
nary bucket  full  of  onions  cut  up,  and  let  them  digest  for  2  days. 
Then  braise  44  Ibs.  of  white  mustard-seed  and  66  Ibs.  of  brown  ; 
put  this  in  a  vat  and  add  1  Ib.  of  pulverized  cloves,  1J  Ib.  of 
pulverized  coriander-seeds,  and  4J  gallons  of  each  of  the  pre- 
pared vinegars.  Stir  the  whole  thoroughly  and  grind  it  twice 
in  a  mill.  To  every  gallon  of  this  add  and  mix  thoroughly  with 
it  1  Ib.  of  salt  dissolved  in  1  quart  of  the  onion  vinegar. 

Sweet  Kremser  must-mustard. — Ground  mustard-seed,  brown  10 
Ibs.,  white  5  Ibs.,  is  intimately  mixed  with  3  Ibs.  of  freshly 
pressed  must,  and  boiled  down  to  the  desired  consistency. 

Sour  Kremser  must-mustard. — Boil  to  a  stiff  paste  15  Ibs.  of 
brown  mustard  ground,  and  5  Ibs.  of  white  mustard  ground, 
together  with  4  Ibs.  of  must,  and  after  cooling  stir  in  4  Ibs.  of 
vinegar. 

Moutarde  de  maille. — Cut  up  8  ozs.  of  fresh  tarragon  leaves 
without  the  stems,  2J  ozs.  of  basil,  2  ozs.  of  bay  leaves  and  4  ozs. 
of  rocambole  (a  species  of  garlic).  Place  these  ingredients  in  a 
glass  alembic,  pour  2J  quarts  of  strong  wine-vinegar  over  them, 
and,  to  allow  the  vapors  to  escape,  tie  up  the  mouth  of  the 
alembic  with  a  piece  of  perforated  moist  bladder.  Place  the 
alembic  upon  hot  sand  for  4  days,  then  filter  the  fluid  first  through 
linen  and  then  through  blotting  paper.  Add  to  this  aromatic 
vinegar,  1  oz.  of  common  salt,  then  stir  it  into  a  thick  paste  with 
ground  brown  mustard-seed,  and  keep  the  mustard  in  earthenware 
jars  tied  up  with  bladder. 


PREPARATION   OF   PICKLES   AND    MUSTARD.  427 

Moutarde  aux  epices  is  prepared  by  extracting  18  ozs.  of  tarra- 
gon leaves,  7  ozs.  of  basil,  1J  oz.  of  bay  leaves,  3J  ozs.  of  white 
pepper,  If  oz.  of  cloves,  and  0.35  oz.  of  mace  with  vinegar  and 
mixing  the  extract  with  mustard  prepared  in  the  ordinary  manner 
from  ground  mustard-seed,  brown  44  Ibs.,  white  11  Ibs.,  and 
vinegar  8J  Ibs. 

Moutarde  aromatisee. — Boil  ground  mustard-seed,  brown  22 
Ibs.,  white  44  Ibs.  with  9  Ibs.  of  vinegar,  and  add  oil  of  tarragon 
1  oz.,  oil  of  thyme  J  oz.,  oil  of  mace  0.35  oz.,  and  oil  of  cloves 
0.17  oz.,  all  previously  dissolved  in  very  strong  vinegar. 

English  mustard. — Ground  mustard-seed  9  Ibs.,  wheat  flour 
9  ozs.,  common  salt  If  lb.,  cayenne  pepper  2f  ozs.}  and  as  much 
vinegar  and  water  as  required. 


APPENDIX. 


X<A    OF  THE 


APPENDIX. 


431 


TABLE  I.  —  Hehner's  alcohol  table. 


£, 

L 

«J  O 

1- 

GO 

Per  cent,  by  weight 
of  absolute  alcohol. 

Per  cent,  by  volume 
of  absolute  alcohol. 

£> 

"> 
as 

tip* 
"  *J 

O.54 

02 

Per  cent,  by  weight 
of  absolute  alcohol. 

Per  cent,  by  volume 
of  absolute  alcohol. 

>> 

I-* 
II 

a* 

DO 

Per  cent,  by  weight 
of  absolute  alcohol. 

Per  cent,  by  volume 
of  absolute  alcohol. 

Specific  gravity 
at  60°  F. 

Per  cent,  by  weight 
of  absolute  alcohol. 

Per  cent,  by  volume 
of  absolute  alcohol. 

1.0000 

0.00 

0.00 

0.9957 

2.45 

3.07 

9.9913 

5.06 

6.32 

0.9869 

8.00     9.95 

6 

2.51 

3.14 

2 

5.12 

6.40 

8 

8.07  10.03 

0.9999 

0.05 

0.07 

5!  2.57 

3.21 

1 

5.19 

6.48 

7 

8.14  10.12 

8 

0.11 

0.13 

4    2.61 

3.28 

0 

5.25 

6.55 

6 

8.  21  '  10.21 

7 

0.16 

0.20 

3 

2.65 

3.35 

5 

8.29  10.30 

6 

0.21 

0.26 

2 

2.71 

3.42 

0.9909 

5.31 

6.63 

4 

8.36  !  10.38 

5 

0.26 

0.33 

1 

2.78 

3.49 

8 

5.37 

6.71 

3 

8.43  ;  10.47 

4 

0.32 

0.40 

0 

2.84 

3.55 

7 

5.44 

6.78 

2 

8.50  ;  10.56 

3 

0.37 

0.46 

6 

5.50 

6.86 

1 

8.57 

10.65 

2 

0.42 

0.53 

0.9949 

2.89 

3.62 

5 

5.56 

6.94 

0 

8.64 

10.73 

1 

0.47 

0.60 

8 

2.94 

3.69 

4 

5.62 

7.01 

0 

0.53 

0.66 

7 

3.00 

3.76 

3 

5.69 

7.09 

0.9859 

8.71 

10.82 

6 

3.06 

3.83 

2 

5.75 

7.17 

8 

8.79 

10.91 

0.9989 

'0.58 

0.73 

5 

3.12 

3.90 

1 

5.81 

7.25 

7 

8.86 

11.00 

8 

0.63 

0.79 

4 

3.18 

3.98 

0 

5.87 

7.32 

6 

8.93 

11.08 

7 

0.68 

0.86 

3 

3.24 

4.05 

5 

9.00 

11.17 

6 

0.74 

0.93 

2 

3.29 

4.12 

0.9899 

5.94 

7.40 

4 

9.07 

11.26 

5 

0.79 

0.99 

1 

3.35 

4.20 

8 

6.00 

7.48 

3 

9.14 

11.35 

4 

0.84 

1.06 

0 

3.41 

4.27 

7 

6.07 

7.57 

2 

9.21 

11.44 

3 

0.89 

1.13 

6 

6.14 

7.66 

.  1 

9.29 

11.52 

2 

0.95 

1.19 

0.9939 

3.47 

4.34 

5 

6.21 

7.74 

0 

9.36 

11.61 

1 

1.00 

1.26 

8 

3.53 

4.42 

4 

6.28 

7.83 

0 

1.06 

1.34 

7 

3.59 

4.49 

3 

6.36 

7.92 

0.9849 

9.43 

11.70 

6    3.65 

4.56 

2 

6.43 

8.01 

8 

9.50 

11.79 

0.9979 

1.12 

1.42 

5 

3.71 

4.63 

1 

6.50 

8.10 

7 

9.57 

11.87 

8 

1.19 

1.49 

4 

3.76 

4.71 

0 

6.57 

8.18 

6 

9.64 

11.96 

7 

1.25 

1.57 

3 

3.82 

4.78 

5 

9.71 

12.05 

6 

1.31 

1.65 

2    3.88 

4.85 

0.9889 

6.64 

8.27 

4 

9.79 

12.13 

5 

1.37 

1.73 

1 

3.94 

4.93 

8 

6.71 

8.36 

3 

9.86 

12.22 

4 

1.44 

1.81 

0 

4.00 

5.00 

7 

6.78 

8.45 

2 

9.93 

12.31 

3 

1.50 

1.88 

6 

6.86 

8.54 

1 

10.00 

12.40 

2 

1.56 

1.96 

0.9929 

4.06 

5.08 

5 

6.93 

8.63 

0 

10.08 

12.49 

1 

1.62 

2.04 

8 

4.12 

5.16 

4 

7.00 

8.72 

0 

1.69 

2.12 

7 

4.19 

5.24 

3 

7.06 

8.80 

0.9839 

10.15 

12.58 

6 

4.25 

5.32 

2 

7.13 

8.88 

8 

10.23 

12.68 

0.9969 

1.75 

2.20 

5 

4.31 

5.39 

1 

7.19 

8.96 

7 

10.31 

12.77 

8 

1.81 

2.27 

4 

4.37 

5.47 

0 

7.27 

9.04 

6 

10.38 

12.87 

7 

1.871  2.35 

3 

4.44 

5.55 

5 

10.46  i  12.96 

6 

1.94 

2.43 

2 

4.50 

5.63 

0.9879 

7.33 

9.13 

4 

10.54   13.05 

5 

2.00 

2.51 

1 

4.56 

5.71 

8 

7.40 

9.21 

3 

10.62    13.  If) 

4 

2.06 

2.58 

0 

4.62 

5.78 

7 

7.47 

9  29 

2 

10.69 

13.24 

3 

2.11 

2.65 

6 

7.53 

9.37 

1 

10.77 

13.34 

2 

2.17 

2.72 

0.9919 

4.69 

5.86 

5 

7.60 

9.45 

0 

10.85 

13.43 

1 

2.22 

2.79 

8 

4.75 

5.94 

4 

7.67 

9.54 

0 

2.28 

2.8b 

7 

4.81 

6.02 

2 

7.73 

9.62 

0.9829 

10.92 

13.52 

6 

4.87 

6.10 

2 

7.80 

9.70 

8 

11.00 

13.62 

.9959 

2.33 

2.93 

5 

4.94 

6.17 

1 

7.87 

9.78 

7 

11.08 

13.71 

8 

2.39 

3.00 

4 

5.00 

6.24 

0 

7.93 

9.86 

6 

11.15 

13.81 

432 


APPENDIX. 


TABLE  I. — (continued.) 


*."3 

«  "o 

-w  ~ 

«   0* 

+*  o 

<D    0 

*>"o 

o>  "3 

2~ 

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PH 

0.9825  11.23  13.90 

0.9781  14.73 

18.14 

0.9739 

18.15 

22  27 

0.9695 

21.69 

26.49 

4111.31 

13.99 

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22.00 

26.86 

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11.62 

14.37 

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18.58 

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18.54 

22.73 

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22.08 

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6  15.17 

18.68 

3 

18.62 

22.82 

0.9819 

11.69 

14.46 

5  15.25 

18.78 

2 

18.69 

22.92 

0.9689 

22.15 

27.04 

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11.77 

14.56 

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18.77 

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19.08 

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15.58 

19.18 

0.9729 

18.92 

23.19 

5 

22.46 

27.40 

4  12.08 

14.93 

0 

15.67 

19.28 

8 

19.00 

23.28 

4 

22.54 

27.49 

3  12.15 

15.02 

7  19.08 

23.38 

3 

22.62 

27.59 

2(12.23(15.12 

0.9769  15.75 

19.39 

6  19.17 

23.48 

2 

22.69 

27.68 

1 

12.31  15.21 

8  15.83 

19.49 

5 

19.25 

23.58 

1 

22.77 

27.77 

0 

12.38 

15.30 

7  15.92 

19.59 

4 

19.33 

23.68 

0 

22.85 

27.86 

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16.00 

19.68 

3 

19.42 

23.78 

0.9809 

12.46  35.40 

5  16.08  19.78 

2 

19.50 

23.88 

0.9679 

22.92 

27.95 

8 

12.54 

L5.49 

4  16.15 

19.87 

1 

19.58 

23.98 

8 

23.00 

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7 

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15.58 

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19.96 

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19.67 

24.08 

7 

23.08 

28.13 

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15.68 

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16.31 

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28.22 

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19.75 

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23.23 

28.31 

412.85  15.86 

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19.83 

24.28 

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23.31 

28.41 

312.92  15.96 

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19.92 

24.38 

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28.50 

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20.33 

6  20.00 

24.48 

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13.08  16.15 

8  16.62  120.43 

5120.08 

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23.54 

28.68 

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16.69  20.52 

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20.17 

24.68 

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23.62 

28.77 

6  16.77 

20.61 

3  20.25 

24.78 

0.9799 

13.23  16.33 

5  16.85  20.71 

2  20.33 

24.88 

0.9669 

23.69 

28.86 

13.31  16.43 

4  16.92  20.80 

1  20.42 

24.98 

8 

23.77 

28.85 

7 

13.38  16.52 

3  17.00  20.89 

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25.07 

7 

23.85 

29.04 

6 

13.46(16.61 

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17.08  20.99 

6 

23.92 

29.13 

5 

13.54  16.70 

1 

17.17 

21.09 

0.9709  20.58 

25.17 

5 

24.00 

29.22 

4 

13.62  16.80 

0 

17.25 

21.19 

8(20.67 

25.27 

4 

24.08 

29.31 

3 

13.69  16.89 

7  20.75 

25.37 

3 

24.15 

29.40 

2 

13.77  16.98 

0.9749  17.33 

21.29 

6  20.83 

25.47 

2 

24.23 

29.49 

-i 

13.85  117.08 

8(17.42  21.39 

5  20.92 

25.57 

1 

24.31 

29.58 

0 

13.9217.17 

7  17.50 

21.49 

4  21.00 

25.67 

0 

24.38 

29.67 

0.9789 

14.00  i  17.26 

6  17.58(21.59 
6  17.67  21.69 

3J21.08 
2(21.15 

25.76 
25.86 

.9659 

24.46 

29.76 

8  14.09  17.37 

417.75 

21.79 

1  21.23 

25.95 

8 

24.54 

29.86 

7  14.18 

17.48 

3  17.83 

21.89 

0:21.31 

26.04 

7 

24.62 

29.95 

6  14.27  17.59 

2  17.92 

21.99 

6 

24.69 

30.04 

5  14.36  17.70 

1  18.00 

22.09 

0.9699  21.38 

26.13 

5 

24.77 

30.13 

4  14.45  17.81 

0 

18.08 

22.18 

8  21.46 

26.22 

4 

24.85 

30.22 

3  14.55  17.92 

7:21.54 

26.31 

3 

24.92 

30.31 

2 

14.64 

18.03 

6  21.62 

26.40 

2 

25.00 

30.40 

APPENDIX. 


433 


TABLE  II. —  Which  indicates  the  specific  gravity  of  mixtures 

of  alcohol  and  water. 

The  figures  in  the  column  to  the  left  show  the  per  cent,  by  volume  of  alcohol ; 
the  figures  in  the  column  to  the  right  give  the  specific  gravities  which 
correspond  to  the  content  of  alcohol  at  60°  F. 


• 

s 

<c 

S 

<v 

s 

* 

j2 

a 

a 

a 

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'o 

"o 

"o 

> 

£"3 

Specific 

> 

£1 

Specific 

£J 

Specific 

> 

£•3 

Specific 

•^.fl 

^B 

gravity  at 

JH 

a'! 

gravity  at 

a'§ 

gravity  at 

«'§ 

gravity  at 

§"3 

60°  F. 

§  * 

60°  F. 

g* 

60°  F. 

s* 

60°  F. 

go 

®"o 

So 

£o 

PH 

<s 

h 

PH 

1 

0.9985 

26 

0.9698 

51 

0.9323 

76 

0:8747 

2 

0.9970 

27 

0.9688 

52 

0.9303 

77 

0.8720 

3 

0.9956 

28 

0.9677 

53 

0.9283 

78 

0.8693 

4 

0.9942 

29 

0.9666 

54 

0.9263 

79 

0.8665 

5 

0.9928 

30 

0.9655 

55 

0.9242 

80 

0.8639 

6 

0.9915 

31 

0.9643 

56 

0.9221 

81 

0.8611 

7 

0.9902 

32 

0.9631 

57 

0.9200 

82 

0.8583 

8 

0.9880 

33 

0.9618 

58 

0.9178 

83 

0.8555 

9 

0.9878 

34 

0.9605 

59 

0.9156 

84 

0.8526 

10 

0.9866 

35 

0.9592 

60 

0.9134 

85 

0.8496 

11 

0.9854 

36 

0.9579 

61 

0.9112 

86 

0.8466 

12 

0.9843 

37 

0.9565 

62 

0.9090 

87 

0.8436 

13 

0.9832 

38 

0.9550 

63 

0.9067 

88 

0.8405 

14 

0.9821 

39 

0.9535 

64 

0.9044 

89 

0.8373 

15 

0.9812 

40 

0.9519 

65 

0.9021 

90 

0.8339 

16 

0.9800 

41 

0.9503 

66 

0.8997 

91 

0.8306 

17 

0.9790 

42 

0.9487 

67 

0.8973 

92 

0.8272 

18 

0.9780 

43 

0.9470 

68 

0.8949 

93 

0.8237 

19 

0.9770 

44 

0.9452 

69 

0.8925 

94 

0.8201 

20 

0.9760 

45 

0.9435 

70 

0.8900 

95 

0.8164 

21 

0.9750 

46 

0.9417 

71 

0.8875 

96 

0.8125 

22 

0.9740 

47 

0.9399 

72 

0.8850 

97 

0.8084 

23 

0.9729 

48 

0.9381 

73 

0.8825 

98 

0.8041 

24 

0.9719 

49 

0.9362 

74 

0.8799 

99 

0.7995 

25 

0.9709 

50 

0.9343 

75 

0.8773 

100 

0.7946 

28 


434  APPENDIX. 

TABLE  III. — Proportion  between  per  cent,  by  weight  and,  by 

volume  of  alcoholic  fluids  at  59°  F. 

(According  to  Starapfer.) 


100  liters  of 
the  alcoholic 
liquid 
contain  — 

Density  or 
specific  gravity 
of  the  fluid. 

00 

rC 

1||( 

0          o 

In  100 
kilgr. 

In 

1  hi. 

100  liters  of 
he  alcoholic 
liquid 
contain  — 

cfi  ~ 

ft  *  ° 

Ji- 

In  100 
kilgr. 

In 
1  hi. 

3f  the  alcoholic 
liquid 
are  contained 
alcohol,  kilogr. 

^J  T3    S 

"o  '5  2    Of  the  alcoholic 
liqiid 
JsJ-^  '   are  contained 
rH^'"     alcohol,  kilogr. 

Alco- 
hol, 
liters. 

Water, 
liters. 

Alco- 
hol, 

iters 

Water, 
liters. 

100 

0.00 

.7951 

79.51  100.00 

79.51 

49 

54.70 

.9366 

93.66 

41.59 

38.96 

99 

1.28 

.8000 

80.00 

98.38 

78.71 

48 

55.68 

9385 

93.85 

40.66 

38.16 

98 

2.54 

8046 

80.46 

96.83 

77.92 

47 

56.66 

9403 

94.03 

39.74 

37.37 

97 

3.77 

8089 

80.89 

95.35 

77.12 

46 

57.64 

9421 

94.21 

38.82 

36.57 

96 

4.97 

8130 

81.30 

93.89 

76.33 

45 

58.61 

9439 

94.39 

37.90 

35.78 

95 

6.16 

8169 

81.69 

92.45 

75.53 

44 

59.58 

9456 

9456 

37.— 

34.98 

94 

7.32 

8206 

82.06 

91.08 

74.74 

43 

60.54 

9473 

94.73 

36.09 

34.19 

93 

8.48 

8242 

82.42 

89.72 

73.94 

42 

61.50 

9490 

94.90 

35.18 

33.39 

92 

9.62 

8277 

82.77 

88.37 

73.15 

41 

62.46 

9506 

95.06 

34.30 

32.60 

91 

10.76 

8311 

83.11 

87.04 

72.35 

40 

63.42 

).9522 

95.22 

33.40 

31.80 

90 

11.88 

.8344 

83.44 

85.74 

71.56 

39 

64.37 

9538 

95.38 

32.52 

31.01 

89 

13.01 

8377 

83.77 

84.74 

70.76 

38 

65.32 

9553 

95.53 

31.63 

30.21 

88 

14.12 

8409 

84.09 

83.22 

69.97 

37 

66.26 

95(58 

95.68  \ 

30.75 

29.42 

87 

15.23 

8440 

84.40 

81.96 

69.17 

36 

67.20 

9582 

95.82 

29.88 

28.62 

86 

16.32 

8470 

84.70 

80.72 

68.38 

35 

68.12 

9595 

95.95 

29.01 

27.83 

85 

17.42 

8500 

85.00 

79.51 

67.58 

34 

69.04 

9607 

96.07 

28.14 

27.03 

84 

18.52 

8530 

85.30 

78.29 

66.78 

33 

69.96 

9620 

96.20 

27.27 

26.24 

83 

19.61 

8559 

85.59 

77.09 

65.99 

32 

70.89 

9633 

96.33 

26.41 

25.44 

82 

20.68 

8588 

85.88 

75.91 

65.10 

31 

71.80 

9645 

96.45 

25.56 

24.65 

81 

21.76 

8616 

86.16 

74.75 

64.40 

30 

72.72 

0.9657 

96.57 

24.70 

23.85 

80 

22.83 

0.8644 

86.44 

73.59 

63.67 

29 

73.62 

9668 

96.68 

23.85 

23.06 

79 

23.90 

8671 

86.71 

72.43 

62.81 

28 

74.53 

9679 

96.79 

23.— 

22.26 

78 

24.96 

8698 

86.98 

71.30 

62.02 

27 

75.43 

9690 

96.90 

22.16 

21.47 

77 

26.03 

8725 

87.25 

70.16 

61.22 

26 

76.33 

9701 

97.01 

21.31 

20.67 

76 

27.09 

8752 

87.52 

69.04 

60.43 

25 

77.23 

9711 

97.11 

20.47 

19.88 

75 

28.15 

8778 

87.78 

67.93 

59.63 

24 

78.13 

9721 

97.21 

19.63 

19.08 

74 

29.20 

8804 

88.04 

66.82 

58.84 

23 

79.02 

9731 

97.31 

18.79 

18.29 

73 

30.26 

8830 

88.30 

65.72 

58.04 

22 

79.9: 

9741 

97.41 

17.96 

17.49 

72 

31.30 

8855 

88.55 

64.64 

57.25 

21 

80.81 

9751 

97.51 

17.12 

16.70 

71 

32.35 

8880 

88.80 

63.68 

56.45 

20 

81.71 

0.9761 

97.61 

16.29 

15.90 

70 

33.39 

0.8905 

89.05 

62.50 

55.66 

19 

82.60 

9771 

97.71 

15.46 

15.11 

69 

34.44 

8930 

89.30 

61.43 

54.86 

18 

83.50 

9781 

97.81 

14.63 

14.31 

68 

35.47 

8954 

89.54 

60.38 

54.07 

17 

84.39 

9791 

97.91 

13.80 

13.52 

67 

36.51 

8978 

89.78 

59.33 

53.27 

16 

85.29 

9801 

98.01 

12.98 

12.72 

66 

37.54 

9002 

90.02 

58.29    52.48 

15 

86.19 

9812 

98.12 

12.15 

11.93 

65 

38.58 

9026 

90.26 

57.25 

51.68 

14 

87.09 

9822 

98.22 

11.33 

11.13 

64 

39.60 

9049 

90.49 

56.23 

50.89 

13 

88.— 

9833 

98.33 

10.51 

10.34 

63 

40.63 

9072 

90.72 

55.21 

50.09 

12 

88.90 

9844 

98.44 

9.69 

9.54 

62 

41.65 

9095 

90.95 

54.20 

49.30 

11 

89.80 

9855 

98.55 

8.78 

8.75 

61 

42.67 

9117 

91.17 

53.19 

48.50 

10 

90.7 

0.9867 

98.67 

8.06 

7.95 

60 

43.68 

0.9139 

91.39 

52.20 

47.71 

9 

91.62 

9878 

98.78 

7.24 

7.16 

59 

44.70 

9161 

91.61 

51  .20 

46.92 

8 

92.54 

9890 

98.90 

6.43 

6.36 

58 

45.72 

9183 

91.83 

50.21 

46.12 

7 

93.4 

9902 

99.02 

5.62 

5.57 

57 

46.73 

9205 

92.05 

49.24 

45.32 

6 

94.3 

9915 

99.15 

4.81 

4.77 

56 

47.73 

9226 

92.26 

48.26 

44.53 

5 

95.3 

9928 

99.28 

4.— 

3.98 

55 

48.74 

9247 

92.47 

47.40 

43.73 

4 

96.2 

9942 

99.42 

3.20 

3.18 

54 

49.74 

9267 

92.67 

46.33 

42.94 

3 

97.7 

9956 

99.56 

2.40 

2.39 

53 

50.74 

9288 

92.88 

45.37 

42.14 

2 

98.1 

9970 

99.70 

1.60 

1.59 

52 

51.74 

9308 

93.08 

44.41 

41.35 

1 

99.0 

9985 

99.85 

0.80 

0.80 

51 

52.73 

9328 

93.28 

43.47 

40.55 

0 

100.0 

1.0000 

100.00 

0.00 

0.00' 

50 

53.72 

0.9348 

93.48 

42.53 

39.76 

APPENDIX. 


435 


TABLE  IV. —  The  actual  content  of  alcohol  and  water  in  mixtures 
of  both  fluids,  and  the  contraction  which  takes  place  in  mixing. 


Specific 
gravity. 

100  volumes  contain 
volumes  — 

Contrac- 
tion. 

Specific 
gravity. 

100  volumes  contain 
volumes  — 

Contrac- 
tion. 

Alcohol. 

Water. 

Alcohol.       Water. 

1.0000 

0 

100.000 

0.000 

0.9323 

51 

52.705 

0.705 

0.9985 

1 

99.055 

055 

03 

52 

51.711 

711 

70 

2 

98.111 

111 

0.9283 

53 

50.716 

716 

56 

3 

97.176 

176 

63 

54 

49.722 

722 

42 

4 

96.242 

242 

42 

55 

48.717 

717 

28 

5 

95.307 

307 

21 

56 

47.712 

712 

15 

6 

94.382 

382 

0.9200 

57 

46.708 

708 

02 

7 

93.458 

458 

0.9178 

58 

45.693 

693 

0.9890 

8 

92.543 

543 

56 

59 

44.678 

678 

78 

9 

91.629 

629 

34 

60 

43.664 

664 

66 

10 

90.714 

714 

12 

61 

42.649 

649 

54 

11 

89.799 

799 

0.9090 

62 

41.635 

635 

83 

12 

88.895 

895 

67 

63 

40.610 

610 

32 

13 

87.990 

990 

44 

64 

39.586 

586 

21 

14 

87.086 

1.086 

21 

65 

38.561 

561 

11 

15 

86.191 

191 

0.8997 

66 

37.526 

526 

0.9SOO 

16 

85.286 

286 

73 

67 

36.492 

492 

0.9790 

17 

84.392 

392 

49 

68 

35.457 

457 

80 

18 

83.497 

497 

25 

69 

34.423 

423 

70 

19 

82.603 

603 

0.8900 

70 

33.378 

378 

60 

20 

81.708 

708 

75 

71 

32.333 

333 

50 

21 

80.813 

813 

50 

72 

31.289 

289 

40 

22 

79.919 

919 

25 

73 

30.244 

244 

29 

23 

79.014 

2.014 

0.8799 

74 

29.190 

190 

19 

24 

78.119 

119 

73 

75 

28.135 

135 

09 

25 

77.225 

225 

47 

76 

27.080 

080 

0.9698 

26 

76.320 

320 

20 

•77 

26.016 

016 

88 

27 

75.426 

426 

0.8693 

78 

24.951 

2.951 

77 

28 

74.521 

521 

65 

79 

23.877 

877 

66 

29 

73.617 

617 

39 

80 

22.822 

822 

55 

30 

72.712 

712 

11 

81 

21.747 

747 

43 

31 

71.797 

797 

0.8583 

82 

20.673 

673 

31 

32 

70.883 

883 

55 

83 

19.598 

598 

18 

33 

69.958 

958 

26 

84 

18.514 

514 

05 

34 

69.034 

3.034 

0.8496 

85 

17.419 

419 

0.9592 

35 

68.109 

109 

66 

86 

16.324 

324 

79 

36 

67.184 

184 

36 

87 

15.230 

230 

65 

37 

66.250 

250 

05 

88 

14.125 

125 

50 

38 

65.305 

305 

0.8373 

•  89 

13.011 

Oil 

35 

39 

64.361 

361 

39 

90 

11.876 

1.876 

19 

40 

63.406 

406 

06 

91 

10.751 

751 

03 

41 

62.451 

451 

0.8272 

92 

9.617 

617 

0.9487 

42 

61.497 

497 

37 

93 

8.472 

472 

70 

43 

60.532 

532 

01 

94 

7.318 

318 

52 

44 

59.558 

558 

0.8764 

95 

6.153 

153 

35 

45 

58.593 

593 

25 

96 

4.968 

0.968 

17 

46 

57.618 

618 

0.8084 

97 

3.764 

764 

0.9399 

47 

56.644 

644 

41 

98 

2.539 

539 

81 

48 

55.669 

669 

0.7995 

99 

1.285 

285 

62 

49 

54.685 

685 

46 

100 

0.000 

000 

43 

50 

53.700 

700 

436 


APPENDIX. 


TABLE  Y. — For  comparing  the  different  areometers  with 

Tralles's  alcoholometer. 

The  statements  of  figures  of  the  other  areometers  corresponding  to  the  per 
cent,  by  volume  according  to  Tralles's  alcoholometer  stand  in  the  same 
horizontal  line. 


Per  cent,  by 
volume  accord- 
ing to  Tralles. 

Per  cent,  by 
weight. 

Areometer  of  — 

Per  cent,  by 
volume  accord- 
ing to  Tralles. 

Per  cent,  by 
weight. 

Areometer  of  — 

Richter. 

i 

<s 
PQ 

Beaume. 

Cartier. 

Richter. 

M 

V 
<D 

PQ 

Beaume. 

Cartier. 

o 

0. 

0.0 

0.0 

10 

11 

51 

43.47 



12.3 





I 

0.80 







— 

52 

44.42 

— 

12.7 

— 

— 

2 

1.60 









53 

45.36 



13.1 

21 



3 

2.40 









54 

46.32 



13.5 



21 

4. 

3.20 



1.0 



— 

55 

47.29 

41.00 

13.9 

— 

— 

5 

4.10 

4.00 

1.2 

11 

12 

56 

48.26 



14.3 

22 

— 

6 

4.81 



1.4 





57 

49.23 

— 

14.8 

— 

22 

7 

5.62 



1.6 





58 

50.21 



15.2 

23 



8 

6.43 



1.9 





59 

51.20 



15.6 



— 

9 

7.24 



2.1 



— 

60 

52.20 

45.95 

16.1 

— 

23 

10 

8.05 

7.50 

2.3 

12 



61 

53.20 



16.5 

24 

— 

11 

8.87 



2.5 





62 

54.21 

— 

17.0 

— 

— 

12 

9.69 



2^7 



13 

63 

55.21 



17.5 

25 

24 

13 

10.51 



2.9 





64 

56.22 



18.0 



— 

14 

11.38 



3.1 



— 

65 

57.24 

51.40 

18.4 

— 

25 

15 

12.15 

10.58 

3.3 





66 

58.27 



18.9 

26 

— 

16 

12.98 



3.5 

13 



67 

59.32 



19.4 

— 

— 

17 

13.80 



3.6 



68 

60.38 



20.0 

27 

26 

18 

14.63 



3.8 





69 

61.42 



20.5 



— 

19 

15.46 



4.0 



14 

70 

62.50 

57.12 

21.0 

28 

27 

20 

16.28 

13.55 

4.2 



•  

71 

63.58 



21.5 



— 

21 

17.11 



4^4 



_^ 

72 

64.66 



22.1 

— 

— 

22 

17.95 



4.6 





73 

65.74 



22.6 

29 

28 

23 

18.78 



4.8 

14 



74 

66.83 



23.2 



— 

24 

19.62 



4.9 





75 

67.93 

62.97 

23.8 

30 

29 

25 

20.46 

16.60 

5.1 





76 

69.05 



24.4 



— 

26 

21.30 



5.3 



15 

77 

70.18 



25.0 

31 

30 

27 

22.14 



5.6 



— 

78 

71.31 

— 

25.6 

— 

— 

28 

22.96 



5.7 





79 

72.45 



26.2 

32 

— 

29 

23.84 



59 

15 



80 

73.59 

69.20 

26.8 

— 

31 

30 

24.69 

19.78 

6.1 



— 

81 

74.74 

— 

27.4 

33 

— 

31 

25.55 



6.4 





82 

75.91 



28.0 

34 

32 

32 

26.41 



6.6 





83 

77.09 

— 

28.7 

— 

— 

33 

27.27 



6.8 



16 

84 

78.29 



29.4 

35 

33 

34 

28.13 



7.0 

16 



85 

79.50 

75.35 

30.1 

— 

— 

35 

28.99 

23.50 

7.2 



86 

80.71 



30.8 

36 

34 

36 

29.86 



7.5 





87 

81.94 



31.5 

37 

35 

37 

30.74 

25.50 

7.7 



— 

88 

83.19 

— 

32.2 

— 

— 

38 

31.62 



8.0 



17 

89 

84.46 



33.0 

38 

36 

39 

32.50 



8.3 

17 



90 

85.75 

81.86 

33.8 

— 

— 

40 

33.39 

27.95 

8.6 





91 

87.05 



34.7 

39 

37 

41 

34.28 



8.9 





92 

88.37 



35.5 

40 

38 

42 

35.18 

— 

9.2 

— 

18 

93 

89.71 

— 

36.4 

41 

— 

43 

36.08 



9.5 

18 



94 

91.07 



37.3 

— 

39 

44 

36.99 



9.8 



— 

95 

92.46 

89.34 

38.2 

42 

40 

45 

37.90 

28.30 

10.2 

— 

— 

96 

93.89 

— 

39.2 

43 

— 

46 

38.82 



10.5 

19 

19 

97 

95.34 



40.3 

44 

41 

47 

39.74 

— 

10.9 

— 

— 

98 

96.84 

— 

41.5 

45 

42 

48 

40.61 



11.2 



— 

99 

98.39 



42.7 

46 

43 

49 

41.59 

— 

11.6 

— 

— 

100 

100.00 

100.00 

43.9 

47 

— 

50 

42.52 

36.46 

11.9 

20 

20 

APPENDIX.  437 


Determination  of  the  true  strengths  of  spirit  for  the  normal 
temperature  of  59°  F. 

When  for  the  determination  of  the  strength  of  a  spirit  of  wine 
the  stand  of  the  alcoholometer  and  of  the  thermometer  has  been 
read  off,  we  possess  two  figures,  by  means  of  which  the  true 
strength  of  spirit  of  the  spirits  of  wine  to  be  examined,  i.  e.,  the 
number  of  liters  of  absolute  alcohol  contained  in  100  liters  of  the 
fluid  to  be  examined,  when  the  latter  possesses  a  normal  temperature 
of  59°  F.,  is  found  as  follows:  If  the  observed  temperature  of  the 
fluid  is  =  59°  F.,  which  is  indicated  on  the  scale  of  the  thermo- 
meter with  a  red  mark,  the  figure  read  off  on  the  scale  of  the 
alcoholometer  indicates  at  once  the  "  true"  strength  of  spirit.  If, 
however,  the  thermometer  shows  a  different  temperature,  in  which 
case  the  figure  read  off  on  the  scale  of  the  alcoholometer  is  termed 
the  "apparent"  strength  of  spirit,  the  true  strength  of  spirit  is 
found  from  the  figure  read  off  on  the  scale  of  the  alcoholometer 
and  the  temperature  with  the  assistance  of  the  following  table : — 

Table  VI.  has  two  entries  ;  one  in  the  uppermost  horizontal  line 
for  the  observed  statements  of  the  alcoholometer,  hence  the  appa- 
rent strengths  from  31  to  44  per  cent. ;  the  other  in  the  first  vertical 
column  for  the  statements  of  Fahrenheit's  thermometer  from  — 13 
to  +99.5.  On  the  place  where  a  vertical  and  horizontal  column 
cross,  the  strength  corresponding  to  the  normal  temperature  of 
59°  F.,  i.  e.,  the  true  strength  of  spirit  is  found. 

If,  for  instance,  the  alcoholometer  immersed  into  a  sample  of 
spirits  of  wine,  indicates  an  apparent  strength  of  77  per  cent.,  and 
the  thermometer  the  temperature  of  the  fluid  as  25.5°  F.,  the  figure 
77  has  to  be  found  in  the  uppermost  horizontal  column,  and  then 
the  vertical  column  belonging  to  it  is  followed  downward  until  the 
horizontal  line  is  reached  in  which  stands  the  figure  25.5  in  the 
column  containing  the  degrees  of  temperature.  Here  the  statement 
82.4  will  be  found  as  the  true  strength  of  spirit,  and  this  figure 
indicates  that  at  the  normal  temperature  of  59°  F.  100  liters  of  the 
spirit  of  wine  examined  contain  82.4  liters  of  absolute  alcohol. 

When  the  apparent  strength  read  off  on  the  alcoholometer  con- 
sists of  a  whole  number  and  a  fraction,  the  true  strength  corre- 
sponding to  the  whole  number  is  determined  in  the  above  manner, 
and  the  surplus  fraction  added  to  the  number  found. 


438  APPENDIX. 

If,  for  instance,  the  temperature  read  off  is  74.75°,  and  the  appa- 
rent strength  81  f  per  cent.,  the  true  strength  belonging  to  81  per 
cent,  and  74.75°,  which  is  =  78.4,  is  first  found  in  the  table  and  to 
this  is  added  the  fraction  f  =  0.75  or  sufficiently  accurate  =  0.7. 
This  gives  78.4  +  0.7  =  79.1  per  cent,  as  the  nearest  accurate  true 
strength. 


APPENDIX. 


439 


TABLE  YI. — Determination  of  the  true  strengths  of  spirit  for  the 
normal  temperature  of  59°  F.  (15°  C.). 


Tempera- 
ture, 
degrees  C. 

Tempera- 
ture, 
degrees  F. 

31 

32 

33 

34 

35       36 

37 

38 

30 

40 

41 

True  strengths  of  spirit  for  the  above  apparent  strengths. 

—25 

—13 

47.9 

48.7 

49.5 

50.3 

51.1    51.9 

52.7 

53.6 

54.4    55.2 

56.0 

—23.75 

—10.75 

47.4 

48.2 

49.0 

49.8 

50.6  '  51.5 

52.3 

53.1 

53.9    54.7 

55.5 

—22.5 

—8.5 

46.9 

47.7 

48.5 

49.3 

50.1  i  51.0 

51.8 

52.6 

53.4    54.3 

55.1 

—21.25 

—6.25 

46.4 

47.2 

48.0 

48.8 

49.6    50.5 

51.3 

52.1 

53.0    53.8 

54.6 

—20           —4 

45.8 

46.7 

47.5! 

48.3 

49.2 

50.0 

50.8 

51.7 

52.5    53.3 

54.2 

—18.75 

—1.75 

45.3 

46.1 

47.0 

47.8 

48.7 

49.5 

50.3 

51.2 

52.0    52.9 

53.7 

—17.5 

+0.5 

44.8 

45.6 

46.5 

47.3 

48.2 

49.0 

49.9 

50.7 

51.6    52.4 

53.3 

—16.25 

+2.75 

44.2 

45.1 

46.0 

46.8 

47.7 

48.5 

49.4 

50.2 

51.1    51.9 

52.8 

—15 

+  5 

43.7 

44.6 

45.4 

46.3 

47.2 

48.0 

48.9 

49.7 

50.6  i  51.5 

52.3 

—13.75 

+  7.25 

43.2 

44.1 

44.9 

45.8 

46.7  S47.5 

48.4 

49.3 

50.1  i  51.0 

51.9 

—12.5 

+  9.5 

42.7 

43.5 

44.4 

45.3 

46.2    47.1 

47.9 

48.8 

49.7    50.6 

51.4 

—11.25 

+  11.75 

42.1 

43.0 

43.9 

44.8 

45.7  I  46.6 

47.5 

48.3 

49.2    50.1 

51.0 

—10 

+  14 

41.6 

42.5 

43.4 

44.3 

45.2  !  46.1 

47  0 

47.9 

48.8   49.7 

50.6 

—8.75  j  +16.25 

41.1 

42.0 

42.9 

43.8 

44.7  !  45.6 

46.5 

47.4 

48.3   49.2 

50.1 

—7.5 

+  18.5 

40.6 

41.5 

42.4 

43.3 

44.2    45.1 

46.0 

46.9 

47.9    48.8 

49.7 

—6 

+  20.75 

40.1 

41.0 

41.9 

42.8 

43.7    44.6 

45.6 

46.5 

47.4   48.3 

49.2 

—5 

+23 

39.5 

40.5 

41.4 

42.3 

43.2    44  2 

45.1 

46.0 

46.9    47.8 

48.8 

—3.75 

+25.25 

39.0 

39.9 

40.9 

41.8 

42.7    43.7 

44.6 

45.5 

46.4   47.4 

48.3 

—2.5 

+27.5 

38.4 

39.4 

40.3 

41.3 

42.2    43.2 

44.1 

45.0 

45.9    46.9 

47.8 

—1.25 

+29.75 

37.9 

38.9 

39.8 

40.8 

41.7    42.7 

43.6 

44.5 

45.5    46.4 

47.3 

0 

+32 

37.4 

38.3 

39.3 

40.3 

41.2 

42.2 

43.1 

44.0 

45.0 

45.9 

46.9 

+1.25 

+  34.25 

36.8 

37.8 

38.8 

39.7 

40.7 

41.7 

42.6 

43.5 

44.5 

45.4 

46.4 

4-2.5    1+36.5 

36.3 

37.3 

38.2 

39.2 

40.2 

41.1 

42.1 

43.0 

44.0 

45.0 

45.9 

+3.75+38.75 

35.7 

36.7 

37.7 

i  38.7 

39.7 

40.6 

41.6 

42.5 

43.5 

44.5 

45.4 

+  5       ]  +41 

35.2 

36.2 

37.2 

i  38.2 

39.1 

40.1 

41.1 

42.0 

43.0 

44.0 

44.9 

+6.25    +43 

34.7 

35.7 

36.7 

37.6 

38.6 

39.6 

40.6 

41.5 

42.5 

43.5 

44.5 

+  7.5    i  +45.5 

34.1 

35.1 

36.1 

37.1 

38.1 

39.1 

40.1 

41.0 

42.0 

43.0 

44.0 

+8.75    +47.75 

33.6 

34.6 

35.6 

36.6 

37.6 

38.6 

39.6 

40.5 

41.5 

42.5 

43.5 

+10         +50 

33.1 

34.1 

35.1 

36.1 

37.1 

38.1 

39.0 

40.0 

41.0 

42.0 

43.0 

+11.25    +52.25 

32.5 

33.6 

34.6 

35.6 

36.6 

37.5 

38.5 

39.5 

40.5 

41.5 

42.5 

+12.5 

+54.5 

32.0 

33.0 

34.0 

35.0 

36.0 

37.0 

38.0 

39.0 

40.0 

41.0 

42.0 

+13.75 

+  56.75 

31.5 

32.5  I  33.5 

34.5 

35.5 

36.5 

37.5 

38.5 

39.5 

40.5    41.5 

+  15 

+59 

31.0 

32.0    33.0 

34.0 

35.0 

36.0 

37.0 

38.0 

39.0 

40.0   41.0 

+16.25 

+  61.25 

30.5 

31.5 

32.5 

33.5 

34.5 

35.5 

36.5 

37.5 

38.5 

39.5    40.5 

+  17.5 

+  63.5 

30.0 

31.0 

32.0 

33.0 

34.0 

35.0 

36.0 

37.0 

38.0 

39.0    40.0 

+  18.75 

+  65.75 

29.5 

30.5 

31.5 

32.5 

33.5 

34.5 

35.5 

36.5 

37.5 

38.5    39.5 

+20 

+  68 

29.0 

30.0 

31.0 

31.9 

32.9 

33.9 

35.0 

36.0 

37.0 

38.0    39.0 

+21.25 

+  70.25 

28.5 

29.5 

30.4 

31.4 

32.4 

33.4 

34.4 

35.5 

36.5 

37.5    38.5 

+22.5 

+  72.5 

28.0 

29.0 

29.9 

i  30.9 

31.9 

32.9 

33.9 

34.9 

36.0 

37.0    38.0 

+23.75 

+  74.75 

27.5 

28.5 

29.4 

30.4 

31.4 

32.4 

33.4 

34.5 

35.5 

36.5  :  37.5 

+25 

+77 

27.0 

28.0 

28.9 

29.9 

30.9 

31.9 

32.9 

33.9 

84.9 

36.0  i  37.0 

+26.25 

+  79.25 

26.5 

27.5 

28.4 

29.4 

30.4 

31.4 

32.4 

33.4 

34.4 

35.5  i  36.5 

+27.5 

+  81.5 

26.0 

27.0 

28.0 

i28.9 

29.9 

30.9 

31.9 

32.9 

33.9 

35.0    36.0 

+28.75 

+  83.75 

25.6 

26.5 

27.5 

28.4 

29.4 

30.4 

31.4 

32.4 

33.4 

34.4    35.5 

+30 

+86 

25.1 

26.0 

27.0 

27.9 

28.9 

29.9 

30.9 

31.9 

32  9 

33.9  i  35.0 

+31.25 

+  88.25 

24.6 

25.5 

26.5 

J27.4 

28.4 

29.4 

30.4 

31.4 

32.4 

33.4  i  34.5 

+32.5 

+90.5 

24.1 

25.0 

26.0 

26.9 

27.9 

28.9 

29.9 

30.9 

31.9 

32.9    34.0 

+33.75 

+92.75 

23.6 

24.5 

25.5 

26.4 

27.4 

28.4 

29.4 

30.4 

31.4 

32.4    33.5 

+  35 

+95 

23.1 

24.1 

25.0 

25.9 

26.9 

27.9 

28.9 

29.9 

30.9 

31.9  |  32.9 

+36.25 

+97.25 

22.7 

23.6 

24.5 

25.4 

26.4 

27.4 

28.4 

29.4 

30.4 

31.4    32.4 

+37.5 

+99.5 

22.2 

23.1 

24.0  ,  24.9 

25.9 

26.9 

27.9 

28.9 

29.9 

30.9    31.9 

440 


APPENDIX.      • 


TABLE  VI. — (continued.) 


Tempera- 
ture, 
degrees  C. 

Tempera- 
ture, 
degrees  F. 

42 

43 

44 

45 

46 

47 

48 

49 

50 

51 

52 

True  strengths  of  spirit  for  the  above  apparent  strengths. 

—25 

—13 

56.8 

57.6 

58.4 

59.3 

60.1 

61.0 

61.8 

62.7 

63.6 

64.5 

65.4 

—23.75 

—10.75 

56.3 

57.2 

58.0 

58.8 

59.7 

60.6 

61.4 

62.3 

63.2 

64.1 

65.0 

—22.5 

-8.5 

55.9 

56.7 

57.6 

58.4 

59.3 

60.1 

61.0 

61.9 

62.8 

63.7 

64.6 

—21.25 

—6.25 

55.4 

56.3 

57.1 

58.0 

58.8 

59.7 

60.6 

61.5 

62.4 

63.3 

64.2 

—20 

_ 

-4 

55.0 

55.8 

56.7 

57.6 

58.4 

59.3 

60.2 

61.1 

61.9 

62.9 

63.8 

—18.75 

—1.75 

54.6 

55.4 

56.3 

57.1 

58.0 

58.9 

59.7 

60.6 

61.5 

62.5 

63.4 

—17.5 

-0.5 

54.1 

55.0 

55.8 

56.7 

57.6 

58.4 

59.3 

60.2 

61.1 

62.1 

63.0 

—16.25 

-2.75 

53.7 

54.5 

55.4 

56.3 

57.1 

58.0 

58.9 

59.8 

60.7 

61.7 

62.6 

—15 

-5 

53.2 

54.1 

55.0 

55.8 

56.7 

57.6 

58.5 

59.4 

60.3 

61.2 

62.2 

—13.75 

-7.25 

52.8 

53.6 

54.5 

55.4 

56.3 

57.2 

58.1 

59.0 

59.9 

60.8 

61.8 

—12.5 

-9.5 

52.3 

53.2 

54.1 

55.0 

55.9 

56.8    57.7 

58.6 

59.5 

60.4 

61.4 

—11.25 

+11.75 

51.9 

52.8 

53.7 

54.5 

55.4 

56.3 

57.2 

58.2 

59.1 

60.0 

61.0 

—10 

+  14 

51.4 

52.3 

53.2 

54.1 

55.0 

55.9 

56.8 

57.8 

58.7 

59.6 

60.6 

—8.75 

+16.25 

51.0 

51,9 

52.8 

53.7 

54.6 

55.5 

56.4 

57.3 

58.3 

59.2 

60.2 

—7.5 

+18.5 

50.6 

51.5 

52.4 

53.3 

54.2 

55.1 

56.0 

56.9 

57.9 

58.8 

59.8 

—6 

+20.75 

50.1 

51.0 

51.9 

52.9 

53.8 

54.7 

55.6 

56.5 

57.5 

58.4 

59.3 

—5 

+  23 

49.7 

50.6 

51.5 

52.4 

53.3 

54.3 

55.2 

56.1 

57.0 

58.0 

58.9 

—3.75 

+  25.25 

49.2    50.1 

51.1 

52.0 

52.9 

53.8 

54.8 

55.7 

56.6 

57.6 

58.5 

—2.5 

+27.5 

48.8,49.7 

50.6 

51.6 

52.5 

53.4 

54.3 

55.3 

56.2 

57.2 

58.1 

—1.25 

+29.75 

48.3   49.2 

50.2 

51.1 

52.0 

53.0 

53.9 

54.9 

55.8 

56.8 

57.7 

0 

+32 

47.8 

48.8 

49.7 

50.7 

51.6 

52.5 

53.5 

54.4 

55.4 

56.3 

57.3 

+1.25 

+34.25 

47.4 

48.3 

49.3 

50.2 

51.2 

52.1 

53.0 

54.0 

54.9 

55.9 

56.9 

+  2.5 

+36.5 

46.9 

47.8 

48.8 

49.8 

50.7 

51.6 

52.6 

53.5 

54.5 

55.5 

56.4 

4-3.75 

+38.75 

46.4 

47.4 

48.3 

49.3 

50.2 

51.2 

52.1 

53.1 

54.1 

55.0 

56.0 

+  5 

4-41 

45.9 

46.9 

47.9 

48.8 

49.8 

50.7 

51.7 

52.7 

53.6 

54.6 

55.6 

+6.25 

+43 

45.4 

46.4 

47.4 

48.3 

49.3 

50.3 

51.2 

52.2 

53.2 

54.2 

55.1 

4-7.5 

+45.5 

44.9 

45.9 

46.9 

47.9 

48.8 

49.8 

50.8 

51.8 

52.7 

53.7 

54.7 

+  8.75 

+47.75 

44.5 

45.4 

46.4 

47.4 

48.4 

49.4 

50.3 

51.3 

52.3 

53.3 

54.2 

+10 

+  50 

44.0 

44.9 

45.9 

46.9 

47.9 

48.9 

49.9 

50.9 

51.8 

52.8 

53.8 

+  11.25 

+  52.25 

43.5 

44.5 

45.5 

46.4 

47.4 

48.4 

49.4 

50.4 

51.4 

52.4 

53.4 

+  12.5 

+  54.5 

43.0 

44.0 

45.0 

46.0 

47.0 

48.0 

48.9 

49.9 

50.9 

51.9 

52.9 

+  13.75 

+  56.75 

42.5 

43.5 

44.5 

45.5 

46.5 

47.5 

48.5 

49.5 

50.5 

51.5 

52.5 

+15 

+59 

42.0 

43.0 

44.0 

45.0 

46.0 

47.0 

48.0 

49.0 

50.0 

51.0 

52.0 

+  16.25 

+61.25 

41.5 

42.5 

43.5 

44.5 

45.5 

46.4 

47.5 

48.5 

49.5 

50.5 

51.5 

+17.5 

+  63.5 

41.0 

42.0 

43.0 

44.0 

45.0 

46.0 

47.1 

48.1 

49.1 

50.1 

51.1 

+18.75 

+  65.75 

40.5 

41.5 

42.5 

43.5 

44.5 

45.6 

46.6 

47.6 

48.6 

49.6 

50.6 

+20 

+  68 

40.0 

41.0 

42.0 

43.1 

44.1 

45.1 

46.1 

47.1 

48.1 

49.1 

50.2 

+21.25 

+  70.25 

39.5 

40.5 

41.6 

42.6 

43.6 

44.6 

45.6 

46.6 

47.6 

48.7 

49.7 

+22.5 

+72.5 

39.0 

40.0 

41.1 

42.1 

43.1 

44.1 

45.1 

46.1 

47.2 

48.2 

49.2 

+23.75 

+  74.75 

38.5 

39.5 

40.6 

41.6 

42.6 

43.6 

44.6 

45.7 

46.7 

47.7 

48.7 

+25 

+77 

38.0 

39.0 

40.1 

41.1 

42.1 

43.1 

44.2 

45.2 

46.2 

47.2 

48.3 

+26.25 

+  79.25 

37.5 

38.5 

39.6 

40.6 

41.6 

42.6 

43.7 

44.7 

45.7 

46.8 

47.8 

+27.5 

+  81.5 

37.0 

38.0 

39.1 

40.1 

41.1 

42.2 

43.2 

44.2 

45.2 

46.3 

47.3 

+28.75 

+  83.75 

36.5 

37.5 

38.6 

39.6 

40.6 

41.7 

42.7 

43.7 

44.8 

45.8 

46.8 

+  30 

+  86 

36.0 

37.0 

38.1 

39.1 

40.1 

41.2 

42.2 

43.2 

44.3 

45.3 

46.4 

+31.25 

+  88.25 

35.5 

36.5 

37.6 

38.6 

39.6 

40.7 

41.7 

42.7 

43.8 

44.8 

45.9 

+32.5 

+90.5 

35.0 

36.0 

37.1 

38.1 

39.1 

40.2 

41.2 

42.3 

43.3 

44.4 

45.4 

+33.75 

+92.75 

34.5 

35.5 

36.6 

37.6 

38.6 

39.7 

40.7 

41.8 

42.8 

43.9 

44.9 

+35 

+95 

34.0 

35.0 

36.1 

37.1 

38.1 

39.2 

40.2 

41.3 

42.3 

43.4 

44.4 

+36.25 

+  97.25 

33.5 

34.5 

35.6 

36.6 

37.6 

38.7 

39.7 

40.8 

41.8 

42.9 

43.9 

+37.5 

+99.5 

33.0 

34.0 

35.1 

36.1 

37.1 

38.2 

39.2 

40.3 

41.3 

42.4 

43.4 

APPENDIX. 


441 


TABLE  VI. — (continued.) 


ture, 
degrees  C. 

Tempera- 
ture, 
degrees  F. 

53 

54: 

55 

56       57 

58 

59 

60 

61 

62 

63 

True  strengths  of  spirit  for  the  ahove  apparent  strengths. 

25 

—13 

66.3 

67.2    68.1 

69.1 

70.0 

70.9 

71.8 

72.7    7:',.i; 

74.4 

75.3 

23.75 

—10.75 

65.9 

66  8    67.7 

68.7 

69.6 

70.5 

71.4 

72.3 

73.2 

74.1 

75.0 

22.5 

—8.5 

65.5 

66.4    67.3 

68.3 

69.2    70.1 

71.0 

71.9    72.8    73.7 

74.6 

21.25 

—6.25 

65.1 

66.0 

67.0 

67.9 

68.8 

69.7 

70.6 

71.5 

72.4    73.3 

74.2 

20 

—4 

64.7 

65.6 

66.6 

67.5 

68.4 

69.3 

70.2 

71.1    72.0    72.9 

73.9 

18.75 

—1.75 

64.3 

65.2 

66.2 

67.1 

68.0 

68.9 

69.8 

70.8    71.7    72.6 

73.5 

17.5 

4-0.5 

63.9 

64.8 

65.8 

66.7 

67.6 

68.5 

69.5 

70.4  1  71.3    72.2 

73.1 

16.25 

4-2.75 

63.5 

64.4 

65.4 

66.3 

67.2 

68.1 

69.1 

70.0    70.9 

71.8 

72.7 

15 

+5 

63.1 

64.0 

65.0 

65.9 

66.8 

67.8 

68.7 

89.6 

70.5 

71.4 

72.4 

13.75 

4-7.25 

62.7 

63.6 

64.6 

65.5 

66.4 

67.4 

68.3 

69.2    70.2 

71.1 

72.0 

12.5 

+  9.5 

62.3 

63.2 

64.2 

65.1    66.0 

67.0 

67.9 

68.9  !  69.8 

70.7 

71.6 

11.25 

+11.75 

61.9 

62.8 

63.8 

64.7    65.7 

66.6 

67.6 

68.5    69.4 

70.3    71.3 

10 

+  14 

61.5 

62.4 

63.4 

64.3    65.3 

66.2 

67.2 

68.1    69.0 

70.0    70.9 

-8.75 

+  16.25 

61.1 

62.0 

63.0 

63.9    64.9 

65.9 

66.8 

67.7  !  68.7 

69.6    70.5 

-7.5 

+  18.5 

60.7 

61.6    62.6 

63.6  !  64.5 

65.5 

66.4 

67.4  1  68.3 

69.2 

70.2 

-6 

+20.75 

60.3 

61.2  j  62.2 

63.2 

64.1 

65.1 

66.0 

67.0    67.9    68.9 

69.8 

-5 

+  23 

59.9 

60.8    61.8 

62.8 

63.7 

64.7 

65.6 

66.6    67.5    68.5 

69.4 

-3.75 

+25.25 

59.5 

60.4 

61.4 

62.4 

63.3 

64.3 

65.3 

66.2 

67.2    68.1 

69.1 

-2.5 

+27.5 

59.1 

60.0 

61.0 

62.0 

62.9 

63.9    64.9 

65.8 

66.8    67.7 

68.7 

-1.25 

4-29.75 

58.7 

59.6 

60.6 

61.6 

62.5 

63.5 

64.5 

65.4 

66.4 

67.3 

68.3 

0 

+32 

58.3 

59.2 

60.2 

61.2 

62.1 

63.1 

64.1 

65.0 

66.0 

67.0 

67.9 

-1.25 

+  34.25 

57.8 

58.8 

59.8 

60.7 

61.7 

62.7 

63.7 

64.6 

65.6    66.6 

67.5 

-2.5      +36.5 

57.4 

58.4 

59.3 

60.3 

61.3 

62.3 

63.3 

64.2 

65.2!  66.2 

67.1 

-3.75    4-38.75 

57.0 

57.9 

58.9 

59.9 

60.9 

61.9 

62.8 

63.8 

64.8    65.8 

66.7 

-5         4-41 

56.5 

57.5 

58.5 

59.5 

60.5 

61.4 

62.4 

63.4 

64.4    65.4 

66.3 

-6.25    4-43 

56.1 

57.1 

58.1 

59.0 

60.0 

61.0 

62.0 

63.0 

64.0    64.9 

65.9 

-7.5      4-45.5 

55.7 

56.6 

57.6 

58.6 

59.6 

60.6 

61.6 

62.6 

63.5    64.5 

65.5 

-8.75    4-47.75 

55.2 

56.2 

57.2 

58.2 

59.2 

60.2 

61.2 

62.1 

63.1    64.1 

65.1 

10         4-50 

54.8 

55.8 

56.8 

57.8 

58.7 

59.7 

60.7 

61.7 

62.7    63.7 

64.7 

11.25    -f-52.25 

54.3 

55.3 

56.3 

57.3 

58.3 

59.3 

60.3 

61.3 

62.3    63.3 

64.3 

12.5    1  4-54.5 

53.9 

54.9 

55.9 

56.9 

57.9 

58.9 

59.9 

60.9 

61.  9  !  62.9 

63.9 

13.75    -4-56.75 

53.5 

54.4 

55.4 

56.4 

57.4 

58.4 

'59.4 

60.4 

61.4  !  62.4 

63.4 

15 

+  59 

53.0 

54.0 

55.0 

56.0 

57.0 

58.0 

59.0 

60.0 

61.0    62.0 

63.0 

16.25 

+61.25 

52.5 

53.5 

54.6 

55.6 

56.6 

57.6 

58.6 

59.6 

60.6 

61.6 

62.6 

17.5 

+  63.5 

52.1 

53.1 

54.1 

55.1 

56.1 

57.1 

58.1 

59.1 

60.1 

61.1 

62.1 

18.75 

+  65.75 

51.6 

52.6 

53.7 

54.7 

55.7 

56.7 

57.7 

58.7 

59.7 

60.7 

61.7 

20 

+68 

51.2 

52.2 

53.2 

54.2 

55.2 

56.2 

57.2 

58.3 

59.3 

60.3 

61.3 

21.25 

+  70.25 

50.7 

51.7 

52.7 

53.8 

54.8 

55.8 

56.8 

57.8 

58.8 

59.8 

60.8 

22.5 

+  72.5 

50.2 

51.3 

52.3 

53.3 

54.3 

55.3 

56.3 

57.4 

58.4 

59.4 

60.4 

23.75 

+74.75 

49.8 

50.8 

51.8 

52.8 

53.9 

54.9 

55.9 

56.9 

57.9 

58.9 

60.0 

25 

+77 

49.3 

50.3 

51.4 

52.4 

53.4 

54.4 

55.5 

56.5 

57.5 

58.5 

59.5 

26.25 

+  79.25 

48.8 

49.9 

50.9 

51.9 

53.0 

54.0    55.0 

56.0 

57.0 

58.1 

59.1 

27.5 

+  81.5 

48.4 

49.4 

50.4 

51.5 

52.5 

53.5 

54.5 

55.6 

56.6 

57.6 

58.6 

28.75 

+  83.75 

47.9 

48.9 

50.0 

51.0 

52.0 

53.1 

54.1 

55.1 

56.1 

57.2 

58.2 

30 

+  86 

47.4 

48.4 

49.5 

50.5 

51.6 

52.6 

53.6 

54.7 

55.7 

56.7 

57.7 

31.25 

+  88.25 

46.9 

48.0 

49.0 

50.1 

51.1 

52.1 

53.2 

54.2 

55.2 

56.2 

57.3 

32.5 

+  90.5 

46.4 

47.5 

48.5 

49.6 

50.6 

51.7 

52.7 

53.7 

54.8 

55.8 

56.8 

33.75 

+92.75 

46.0 

47.0 

48.1 

49.1 

50.2 

51.2 

52.2 

53.3 

54.3 

55.3 

56.4 

35 

+95 

45.5 

46.5 

47.6 

48.6 

49.7 

50.7 

51.8 

52.8 

53.8 

f>4.9 

55.9 

36.25 

4-97.25 

45.0 

46.0 

47.1 

48.2 

49.2 

50.3 

51.3 

52.4 

53.4 

54.4 

55.4 

37.5 

+99.5 

44.5 

45.6 

46.6 

47.7 

48.7 

49.8 

50.8 

51.9 

52.9 

53.9 

55.0 

442 


APPENDIX. 


TABLE  VI. — (continued.) 


Tempera- 
ture, 
degrees  C. 

Tempera- 
ture, 
degrees  F. 

64 

65 

66 

67 

68 

69 

70 

71 

72 

73 

74 

True  strengths  of  spirit  for  the  above  apparent  strengths. 

-25 

—13 

76.2    77.1  !  78.0    79.0 

79.9 

80.8 

81.7 

82.6 

83.5 

84.4 

85.3 

-23.75 

—10.75 

75.9    76.8    77.7    78.6 

79.5 

80.4 

81.3 

82.2 

83.2 

84.1 

85.0 

-22.5 

-8.5 

75.5    76.4    77.3    78.2 

79.1 

80.1 

81.0 

81.9 

82.8 

83.7 

84.6 

-21.25 

-6.25 

75.1  !  76.0  i  77.0    77.9 

78.8 

79.7 

80.6 

81.6 

82.5 

83.4 

84.3 

-20 

- 

-4 

74.8  i  75.7    76.6    77.5 

78.4 

79.3 

80.3 

81.2 

82.1 

83.0 

84.0 

-18.75 

—1.75 

74.4  i  75.3    76.2    77.2 

78.1 

79.0 

79.9 

80.9 

81.8 

82.7 

83.6 

-17.5 

+0.5 

74.0    74.9    75.9    76.8 

77.7 

78.6 

79.6 

80.5 

81.4 

82.4 

83.3 

-16.25 

f275 

73.7    74.6    75.5    76.4 

77.4 

78.3 

79.2 

80.2 

81.1 

82.0 

82.9 

-15 

+  5 

73.3    74.2    75.1    76.1 

77.0 

77.9 

78.9 

79.8 

80.7 

81.7 

82.6 

-13.75 

+  7.25 

72.9    73.9    74.8    75.7 

76.7 

77.6 

78.5 

79.5 

80.4 

81.3 

82.3 

-12.5 

+  9.5 

72.6  I  73.5    74.4    75.4 

76.3 

77.2 

78.2 

79.1 

80.1 

81.0 

81.9 

-11.25 

+11.75 

72.2  i  73.1    74.1    75.0 

75.9 

76.9 

77.8 

78.8 

79.7 

80.7 

81.6 

-10 

+  14 

71.8    72.8    73.7  :  74.6 

75.6 

76.5 

77.5 

78.4 

79.4 

80.3 

81.3 

—8.75 

+  16.25 

71.5  !  72.4    73.4    74.3 

75.2 

76.2 

77.1 

78.1 

79.0 

80.0 

80.9 

-7.5 

+  18.5 

71.1  i  72.1  ;  73.0|  73.9 

74.9 

75.8 

76.8 

77.7 

78.7 

79.6 

80.6 

—  6 

+20.75 

70.7  i  71.7    72.6  |  73.6 

74.5 

75.5 

76.4 

77.4 

78.4 

79.3 

80.3 

5 

+23 

70.4    71.3    72.3    73.2 

74.2 

75.1 

76.1 

77.0 

78.0 

79.0 

79.9 

—3.75 

+  25.25 

70.0    71.0    71.9    72.9 

73.8 

74.8 

75.7 

76.7 

77.7 

78.6 

79.6 

—2.5 

+  27.5 

69.6    70.6  ,  71.5 

72.5 

73.5 

74.4 

75.4 

76.3 

77.3 

78.3 

79.2 

—1.25 

+29.75 

69.3 

70.2    71.2 

72.1 

73.1 

74.0 

75.0 

76.0 

77.0 

77.9 

78.9 

0 

+32 

68.9 

69.8 

70.8 

71.8 

72.7 

73.7 

74.7 

75.6 

76.7 

77.6 

78.5 

+1.25 

+34.25 

68.5 

69.5 

70.4 

71.4 

72.3 

73.3 

74.3 

75.3 

76.2 

77.2 

78.2 

+2.5 

+36.5 

68.1 

69.1    70.0 

71.0 

72.0 

72.9 

73.9 

74.9 

75.9 

76.8 

77.8 

+3.75 

+38.75 

67.7  '  68.7    69.6 

70.6 

71.6 

72.6 

73.5 

74.5 

75.5 

76.5 

77.4 

+  5 

+41 

67.3    68.3    69.9 

70.2 

71.2 

72.2 

73.1 

74.1 

75.1 

76.1 

77.1 

+  6.25 

+43 

66.9    67.9  I  69.3 

69.8 

70.8 

71.8 

72.8    73.7 

74.7 

75.7 

76.7 

+  7.5 

+45.5 

66.5 

67.5    68.5 

69.4 

70.4 

71.4 

72.4 

73.4 

74.3 

75.3 

76.3 

+  8.75 

+47.75 

66.1    67.1    68.1 

69.0 

70.0 

71.0 

72.0 

73.0 

74.0 

74.9 

75.9 

hio 

+  50 

65.7    66.7  :  67.6 

68.6 

69.6 

70.6 

71.6 

72.6 

73.6 

74.6 

75.5 

-11.25 

+  52.25 

65.3    66.3    67.2 

68.2 

69.2    70.2 

71.2 

72.2 

73.2 

74.2 

75.2 

-12.5 

+  54.5 

64.8    65.8    66.8 

67.8 

68.8 

69.8 

70.8 

71.8 

72.8 

73.8    74.8 

-13.75 

+  56.75 

64.4    65.4    66.4 

67.4 

68.4 

69.4 

70.4 

71.4 

72.4 

73.4 

74.4 

-15 

+  59 

64.0    65.0    66.0 

67.0 

68.0 

69.0 

70.0 

71.0 

72.0 

73.0 

74.0 

-16.25 

+  61.25 

63.6    64.6    65.6 

66.6 

67.6 

68.6 

69.6 

70.6 

71.6 

72.6 

73.6 

-17.5 

+  63.5 

63.2    64.2 

65.2 

66.2 

67.2 

68.2 

69.2 

70.2 

71.2 

72.2 

73.2 

-18.75 

+  65.75 

62.7    63.7 

64.7 

65.8 

66.8 

67.8 

68.8 

69.8 

70.8 

71.8 

72.8 

-20 

+  68 

62.3 

63.3 

64.3 

65.3 

66.3 

67.4 

68.4 

69.4 

70.4 

71.4 

72.4 

-21.25 

+  70.25 

61.9 

62.9 

63.9 

64.9 

65.9 

66.9 

68.0 

69.0 

70.0 

71.0 

72.0 

-22.5 

+72.5 

61.4 

62.4 

63.5 

64.5    65.6 

66.5 

67  5 

68.6 

69.6 

70.6 

71.6 

-23.75 

+74.75 

61.0 

62.0 

63.0 

64.1    65.1 

66.1 

67.1 

68.1 

69.2 

70.2 

71.2 

-25 

•4-77 

60.5 

61.6 

62.6 

63.6 

64.6 

65.7 

66.7 

67.7 

68.7 

69.8 

70.8 

-26-25 

-79.25 

60.1 

61.1 

62.1 

63.2 

64.2 

65.2 

66.3 

67.3 

68.3 

69.4 

70.4 

-27.5 

-81.5 

59.6 

60.7 

61.7 

62.7 

63.8 

64.8 

65.8 

66.9 

67.9 

68.9 

70.0 

-28.75 

-83.75 

59.2 

60.2 

61.3 

62.3 

63.3 

64.4 

65.4 

66.4 

67.5 

68.5 

69.5 

-30 

-86 

58.7 

59.8 

60.8 

61.9 

62.9 

63.9 

65.0 

66.0 

67.1 

68.1 

69.1 

[-31.25 

+  88.25 

58.3 

59.3 

60.4 

61.4 

62.5 

63.5 

64.5 

65.6 

66.6 

67.7 

68.7 

h32.5 

+90.5 

57.8 

58.9 

59.9 

61.0    62.0 

63.1 

64.1 

65.1 

66.2 

67.2 

68.3 

r33.75 

+92.75 

57.4 

58.4 

59.5 

60.5  ,  61.6 

62.6 

63.7 

64.7 

65.8 

66.8 

67.9 

r35 

+95 

56.9 

58.0 

59.0 

60.1  !  61.1 

62.2 

63.2 

64.3 

65.3 

66.4 

67.4 

[-36.25 

+97.25 

56.5 

57.5 

58.6 

59.  6  :  60.7 

61.7 

62.8 

63.8 

64.9 

65.9 

67.0 

[-37.5 

+99.5 

56.0 

57.1 

58.1 

59.2    60.2 

61.3 

62.3 

63.4 

64.4 

65.5 

66.6 

APPENDIX. 


443 


TABLE  VI. — (concluded.) 


?  » 
ill 

IH* 

£   •* 

j 
\ 

1 

Cb 

•si 

s  to 

**  <O 

•a 

75 

76       77 

78 

79 

80 

81 

82 

83 

84       85      86 

True  strengths  of  spirit  for  the  above  apparent  strengths. 

—25 

—13 

86.2 

87.1 

88.0    88.9 

89.7 

90.6 

91.4 

92.3 

93.1 

93.9    94.7    95.5 

-^23.75 

—10.75 

85.9 

86.8 

87.7    88.5 

89.4 

90.3 

91.1 

92.0 

92.8 

93.6    94.4    95.3 

—22.5 

-8.5 

85.5 

86.4 

87.3    88.2 

89.1 

90.0 

90.8 

91.7 

92.5 

93.3    94.2    95.0 

—21.25 

_ 

-6.25 

85.2 

86.1 

87.0  i  87.9 

88.8 

89.6 

90.5 

91.4 

92.2 

93.0    93.9    94.7 

—20 

_ 

-4 

84.9 

85.8 

86.7    87.6 

88.5 

89.3 

90.2 

91.1 

91.9 

92.8    93.6    94.4 

—18.75 

—1.75 

84.5 

85.4 

86.3:  87.2 

88.1 

89.0 

89.9    90.8 

91.6 

92.5    93.3    94.1 

—17.5 

+0.5 

84.2 

85.1 

86.0    86.9 

87.8 

88.7    89.6    90.4 

91.3 

92.2    93.0    93.8 

—16.25 

-2.75 

83.9 

84.8 

85.7  j  86.6 

87.5 

88.4 

89.3 

90.1 

91.0 

91.9    92.7    93.6 

—15 

-5 

83.5 

84.4 

85.4    86.3 

87.2 

88.1 

88.9 

89.8 

90.7 

91.6    92.4    93.3 

—13.75 

-7.25 

83.2 

84.1 

85.0    85.9 

86.8 

87.7 

88.6 

89.5 

90.4 

91.3    92.1    93.0 

—12.5 

-9.5 

82.9 

83.8 

84.7 

85.6 

86.5 

87.4 

88.3 

89.2 

90.1 

91.0    91.9    92.7 

—11.25 

+11.75 

82.5 

83.5 

84.4    85.3 

86.2 

87.1 

88.0 

88.9 

89.8 

90.7    91.6    92.5 

—10 

+14 

82.2 

83.1 

84.1    85.0 

85.9    86.8 

87.7 

88.6 

89.5 

90.4    91.3    92.2 

—8.75 

+  16.25 

81.9 

82.8 

83.7  :  84.7 

85.6    86.5 

87.4 

88.3 

89.2 

90.1    91.0    91.9 

—7.5 

+18.5 

81.5 

82.5 

83.4    84.3 

85.3    86.2 

87.1 

88.0 

88.9 

89.8    90.7    91.6 

—6 

+20.75 

81.2 

82.1 

83.1  '  84.0 

85.0    85.9 

86.8 

87.7 

88.6 

89.5    90.5    91.4 

—5 

+23 

80.9 

81.9 

82.8  ,  83.7 

84.6    85.6 

86.5 

87.4 

88.3 

89.2    90.2    91.1 

—3.75 

+25.25 

80.5 

81.5 

82.4    83.4 

84.3  l  85.2 

86.2 

S7.1 

88.0 

88.9    89.9    90.8 

—2.5 

+27.5 

80.2 

81.1 

82.1    83.0 

84.0 

84.9 

85.9 

86.8 

87.7 

88.6    89.6    90.5 

—1.25 

+29.75 

79.8 

80.8 

81.8 

82.7 

83.7 

84.6 

85.5 

86.5 

87.4 

88.3    89.3    90.2 

0 

+32 

79.5 

80.4 

81.4 

82.4 

83.3 

84.3 

85.2 

86.2 

87.1 

88.0    89.0  1  89.9 

4-1.25 

+34.25 

79.1 

80.1 

81.1 

82.0 

83.0 

83.9 

84.9 

85.8 

86.8 

87.7    88.6  i  89.6 

+2.5 

+36.5 

78.8 

79.7 

80.7 

81.7 

82.6  J  83.6 

84.5 

85.5 

86.4 

87.4    88.3    89.3 

+3.75 

+38.75 

78.4 

79.4 

80.3    81.3 

82.3  i  83.2 

84.2 

85.2 

86.1 

87.1  i  88.0    89.0 

4-5 

+41 

78.0 

79.0 

80.0    81.0 

81.9  i  82.9 

83.9 

84.8 

85.8 

86.7  :  87.7  ;  88.6 

+  6.25 

+43 

77.7 

78.6 

79.6  !  80.6 

81.6  i  82.5 

83.5    84.5 

85.4 

86.4    87.4    88.3 

+7.5 

+45.5 

77.3 

78.3 

79.3    80.2    81.2    82.2 

83.2 

84.1 

85.1 

86.1    87.0    88.0 

+8.75 

+47.75 

76.9 

77.9 

78.9    79.9 

80.8    81.8 

82.8 

83.8 

84.8 

85.7    86.7    87.7 

+10 

+50 

76.5 

77.5 

78.5    79.5 

80.5    81.5 

82.4 

83.4 

84.4 

85.4    86.4    87.3 

+11.25 

+  52.25 

76.2 

77.1 

78.1    79.1 

80.1    81.1 

82.1 

83.1 

84.1 

85.0    86.0    87.0 

+  12.5 

+54.5 

75.8 

76.8 

77.8    78.8 

79.7    80.7 

81.7 

82.7 

83.7 

84.7    85.7    86.7 

+13.75 

+  56.75 

75.4 

76.4 

77.4 

78.4 

79.4 

80.4 

81.4 

82.4 

83.4 

84.3    85.3 

86.3 

+  15 

+  59 

75.0 

76.0 

77.0 

78.0 

79.0 

80.0 

81.0 

82.0 

83.0 

84.0    85.0 

86.0 

+  16.25 

+  61.25 

74.6 

75.6 

76.6 

77.6    78.6 

79.6 

80.6 

81.6 

82.6 

83.6    84.6 

85.6 

+17.5 

+  63.5 

74.2 

75.2 

76.2 

77.2  j  78.2 

79.2 

80.3 

81.3 

82.3 

83.3    84.3 

85.3 

+18.75 

+  65.75 

73.8 

74.8 

75.8 

76.8    77.9 

78.7 

79.9 

80.9 

81.9 

82.9    83.9 

85  9 

+20 

+  68 

73.4 

74.4 

75.1 

76.5 

77.5 

78.5 

79.5    80.5 

81.5 

82.6    83.6 

84.6 

+21.25 

+  70.25 

73.0 

74.0 

75.7 

76.1 

77.1 

78.1 

79.1 

80.1 

81.2 

82.2    83.2 

84.2 

+22.5 

+  72.5 

72.6 

73.6 

74.4 

75.7 

76.7 

77.7 

78.7 

79.8 

80.8 

81.8    82.9 

83.9 

+23.75 

+74.75 

72.2 

73.2 

74.3 

75.3 

76.3 

77.3 

78.4 

79.4 

80.4 

81.5    82.5 

83.5 

+25 

+77 

71.8 

72.8 

73.9 

74.9 

75.9 

76.9 

78.0 

79.0 

80.0 

81.1    82.1 

83.2 

+26.25 

+79.25 

71.4 

72.4 

73.5 

74.5 

75.5 

76.5 

77.6 

78.6 

79.6 

80.7  '  81.7 

82.8' 

+27.5 

+  81.5 

71.0 

72.0 

73.0 

74.1 

75.1 

76.1 

77.2 

78.2 

79.3 

80.3    81.4 

82.4 

+28.75 

+  83.75 

70.6 

71.6 

72.6 

73.7 

74.7 

75.7 

76.8 

77.8 

78.9 

79.9    81.0 

82.0 

+30 

+  86 

70.2 

71.2 

72.2 

73.3 

74.3 

75.3 

76.4 

77.4 

78.5 

79.5    80.6 

81.7 

+31.25 

+  88.25 

69.7 

70.8 

71.8 

72.9  1  73.9 

74.9 

76.0 

77.0 

78.1 

79.1    80.2 

81.3 

+32.5 

+90.5 

69.3 

70.4 

71.4 

72.4    73.5 

74.5 

75.6 

76.6 

77.7 

78.7    79.8 

80.9 

+33.75 

+92.75 

68.9 

69.9 

71.0 

72.0    73.1 

74.1 

75.2 

76.2 

77.3 

78.3    79.4 

80.5 

+35 

+  95 

68.5 

69.5 

70.6 

71.6  1  72.7 

73.7 

74.8 

75.8 

76.9 

77.9    79.0 

80.1 

+36.25 

+97.25 

68.1 

69.1 

70.1 

71.2    72.2 

73.3 

74.3 

75.4 

76.5 

77.5    78.6 

79.7 

+37.5 

+99.5 

67.6 

68.7 

69.7 

70.8    71.8 

72.9 

73.9 

75.0 

76.1 

77.1  j  78.2 

79.3 

444 


APPENDIX. 


TABLE  VII. — Determination  of  the  true  volume  of  alcoholic  fluids 

from  the  apparent  volume  at  different  temperatures. 

(According  to  A.  F.  W.  Brix.) 


Degrees  C. 

Degrees  F. 

55-57 

58-6o'  61-64 

65-69 

70-74  75-79  80-84 

85-89 

90-94 

Reducing  factors  for  the  above  strengths  of  spirits  of  wine. 

—10 

+  14 

1.0198  1.0203J1.0207  1.0213 

1.0220 

1.0227 

1.0233 

1.0238 

1.0246 

—8.75 

—  16.25 

0189 

0193 

0197;  0203 

0210 

0217 

0222 

0227 

0235 

—7.5 

--18.5 

0180 

0183 

0187  0193 

0200 

0206 

0211 

0216 

0223 

—6 

--20.75 

0170 

0173 

01771  0183 

0189 

0195 

0200 

0205 

0211 

—5 

+23 

0161 

0164 

0168:  0173 

0179 

0185 

0190 

0194 

0200 

—3.75 

+  25.25 

0152 

0155 

0158!  0163 

0169 

0175 

0179 

0183 

0189 

—2.5 

+  27.5 

0143 

0146 

0148 

0153 

0159 

0164 

0168 

0172 

0178 

—1.25 

+29.75 

0133 

0136 

0138 

0143 

0148 

0153 

0157 

0161 

0166 

0 

+32 

0123 

0126 

0128  0132 

0138 

0142 

0146 

0150 

0154 

+1.25 

+34.25 

0114 

0117 

0118  0122 

0127 

0131 

0135 

0139 

0142 

+2.5 

4-36.5 

0105 

0107 

0108 

0112 

0116 

0120 

0124 

0128 

0130 

+  3.75 

+  38.75 

0095 

0097 

0098 

0102 

0105 

0109 

0113 

0116 

0118 

+  5 

+41 

0085 

0087 

0088 

0091 

0094 

0098 

0101 

0104 

0106 

+  6.25 

+43.25 

0075 

0077 

0078 

0080 

0083 

0086 

0089 

0092 

0094 

+  7.5 

+45.5 

0066 

0067 

0068 

0070 

0072 

0075 

0078 

0080 

0082 

+  8.75 

+47.75 

0056 

0057 

0058 

0060 

0061 

0064 

0066 

0068 

0070 

+10 

+  50 

•  0046 

0047 

0048 

0050 

0050 

0053 

0054 

0056 

0058 

+  11.25 

+  52.25 

0036 

0037 

0038 

0039 

0039 

0041 

0042 

0044 

0045 

+  12.5 

-j-54.5 

0026 

0027 

0027 

0028 

0028 

0029 

0030 

0031 

0032 

+  13.75 

+56.75 

0015 

0016 

0016 

0017 

0017 

0017 

0018 

0019 

0019 

+15 

+  59 

1.0005 

1.0005ll.0005 

1.0006 

1.0006 

1.0006  1.0006 

1.0006 

1.0006 

4-16.25 

+  61.25 

0.9995 

0.9995  0.9995 

0.9995 

0.9994 

0.99940.9994 

0.9994 

0.9993 

+  17.5  1  +  63.5 

9985 

99851  9984 

9984 

9983 

9983|  9982 

9982 

9981 

+  18.75 

+65.75 

9975 

9975 

9974 

9973 

9972 

9971  9970 

9969 

9968 

+20 

+68 

9965 

9965 

9963 

9962 

9861 

9960  9958 

9957 

9955 

+-21.25 

+  70.25 

9955 

9955 

9952 

9951 

9950 

9949 

9946 

9945 

9942 

+22.5 

+72.5 

9945 

9944 

9941 

9940 

9939 

9937 

9934 

9932 

9929 

+23.75 

+74.75 

9934 

9933 

9930 

9929 

9927 

9925 

9922 

9919 

9916 

+25 

+77 

9923 

9922[  9919 

9917 

9915 

9912 

9909 

9906 

9903 

+26.25 

+79.25 

9912 

9911 

9908 

9906 

9903 

9901 

9897 

9893 

9890 

+  27.5  1  +  81.5 

9901 

9900 

9897 

9894 

9891 

9889 

9885 

9880 

9877 

+  28.75 

+83.75 

9890 

9889 

9886 

9882 

9879 

9876 

9872 

9867 

9864 

+  30 

+86 

98791  9877 

9874 

9870 

9866 

9883 

9859 

9854 

9851 

+  31.25  +88.25 

0.9868 

0.98650.9862 

0.9858 

0.9854 

0.9850 

0.9846 

0.9841 

0.9837 

Explanation  of  Table  VII. 

Alcohol,  or  alcohol  and  water,  heated  above  or  cooled  below  the 
normal  temperature  expands  or  contracts.  Now,  for  instance,  what 
is  the  volume  of  10,000  liters  of  a  mixture  of  82  per  cent,  by  volume 
at  +5°  C.  (41°  F.)  at  the  normal  temperature.* — In  the  horizontal 
column  below  80-84  and  in  the  vertical  column  at  +5°  C.  (41°  F.) 


The  table  is  calculated  for  a  normal  temperature  of  15.5°  C.  (60°  F.). 


APPENDIX.  445 

is  the  reducing  factor  1.0101 ;  hence  1 0,000  liters  are  10,000  X  1.0101 
=  10,101  liters.  82  being  exactly  the  means  of  80-84,  the  reduc- 
tion is  accurate.  At  83°  the  factor  would  have  to  be  increased  by  1 ; 
at  84  by  f,  and  consequently  the  factor  for  83°  would  be  1.0101  + 
(1.0104  —  1.0101)  J  =  1.01016.  For  the  practice  the  above  factors 
suffice  without  change. — The  measuring  of  the  temperature  and 
reading  off  of  the  percentage  of  spirit  should  be  done  in  the  storage- 
cellar,  and  not  in  a  warmer  room,  for  instance,  the  office,  as  is 
frequently  the  custom  to  the  disadvantage  of  the  seller. 


446 


APPENDIX. 


s 


O  O  OS  Cfe  OS  QO  GO  Jt«  J 


i—  lO(N(lDCOi—  l 


01  C     O  CO  O  CN  t     iO 


K 

3 
tx> 

B 


c-  co  "*  k«  i>  o  «  «o  c  co  co  <M 

OOiODt—yD^C 


r-i!—  (i—  lOOOlOi 


2  >,i 


APPENDIX. 


447 


TABLE  IX. — For  the  reduction  of  specific  gravities  to 

saccharometer  per  cent. 
(According  to  Balling). — Temperature  63.5°  F. 


2 

2 

o 

2 

i 

i 

i 

*  a 

5  a 

*  n 

Ja 

o  '•" 

8- 

0  « 

g'H 

8~ 

^ 

«l 

^ 

y*  3 

^ 

*  § 

^ 

5  1 

K  ~ 

£'    °°  = 

^ 

*  ® 

g 

11 

1 

s"  2 

I 

sS 

> 

g 

S  £  • 

"> 
2 

cl 

^  « 

6C 

2  .-§ 

|c§ 

!•-§ 

S.c" 

Sto 

f"l 

bo 

=  K-l 

'5 

|I& 

1 

'Z  £  a 

05 

Ill 

<D 
O. 

fell. 

1 

11! 

0) 

02 

u 

X 

0 

an 

u 

W2 

6 

03 

6 

oT 

6 

1.0000 

0.000 

1.0040 

1.000 

1.0080 

2.000 

1.0120 

3.000 

1.0160  4.000 

1.0200 

5.000 

1.0001 

0.025 

41 

025 

81 

025 

121 

025 

161 

025 

201 

025 

2 

0.050 

42 

050 

82 

050 

122 

050 

162j   050 

202 

050 

3 

075 

43 

075 

83 

075 

123 

075 

163!   075 

203 

075 

4 

100 

44 

100 

84   100 

124 

100 

164i   100 

204 

100 

5 

125 

45 

125 

85 

125 

125 

125 

165   125 

205 

125 

6 

150 

46 

150 

86 

150 

126 

150 

166   150 

206 

150 

7 

175 

47 

175 

87 

175 

127 

175 

167   175 

207 

175 

8 

200 

48 

200 

88 

200 

128 

200 

168   200 

208 

200 

9 

225 

49 

225 

89 

225 

129 

225 

169   225 

209 

225 

1.0010 

250 

1.0050 

250 

1.0090 

250 

1.0130 

250 

1.0170 

250 

1.0210 

250 

11   275 

51 

275 

91 

275 

131 

275 

171 

275 

211 

275 

12 

300 

52 

300 

92 

300 

132 

300 

172 

300 

212 

300 

13 

3  OK 
M« 

53 

325 

93 

325 

133 

325 

173   325 

213 

325 

14 

350 

54 

350 

94 

350 

134 

350 

1741   350 

214 

350 

15 

375 

55 

375 

95 

375 

135 

375 

175   375 

215 

375 

16 

400 

56 

400 

96 

400 

136 

400 

176 

401 

216 

400 

17 

425 

57 

425 

97 

425 

137 

425 

177   425 

217 

425 

18 

450 

58 

450 

98 

450 

138 

450 

178   450 

218 

450 

19 

475 

59 

475 

99   475 

139 

475 

1791   475 

219 

475 

1.0020 

500 

1.0061 

50C 

1.01  00  j   500 

1.0140 

500 

1.0180   500 

1.0220 

500 

21 

525 

61 

525 

1011   525 

141 

525 

181   525 

221   525 

22 

550 

62 

55C 

102|   55( 

142 

550 

182 

551 

222 

550 

23 

575 

63 

575 

103   575 

143 

575 

183 

575 

223 

575 

24 

600 

64 

600 

104   600 

144 

600 

184 

600 

224 

600 

25 

625 

65 

625 

105 

625 

145 

625 

185 

625 

225 

625 

26 

650 

66 

650 

106 

650 

146 

650 

186 

650 

226 

650 

27 

675 

67 

675 

107 

675 

147 

675 

187 

675 

227 

675 

28 

70C 

68 

700 

108 

70( 

148 

700 

188 

701 

228 

700 

29 

725 

69 

725 

109 

725 

149 

725 

189 

725 

229 

725 

1.0030 

750 

1.0070 

750 

1.0110 

751 

1.0150 

751 

1.0190 

751 

1.0230 

750 

31 

775 

71 

775 

111 

775 

151 

775 

191 

775 

231 

775 

32 

800 

72 

800 

112 

800 

152 

800 

192   801 

232 

800 

33 

825 

73 

825 

113 

825 

153 

825 

193 

82f 

233 

825 

34 

850 

74 

850 

114 

850 

154 

85C 

194 

85( 

234 

850 

35 

875 

75 

875 

115 

875 

155 

875 

195 

875 

235 

875 

36 

900 

7b 

900 

lib 

900 

156 

90C 

196 

900 

236 

900 

37 

92 

7*3 

925 

117 

925 

157 

925 

197 

925 

237 

925 

38 

95( 

78 

950 

118 

950 

158 

950 

198   95( 

238 

950 

39 

97 

79 

975 

119 

975 

159 

975 

199   975 

239 

975 

448 


APPENDIX. 


TABLE  IX. — (continued.) 


Specific  gravity. 

Corresponding  saccharo- 
meter,  statement  in 
per  cent. 

. 

ng  saccharo- 
;ement  in 

2 

00  a 

^s 

. 

2 

—  d 

i| 

Specific  gravity. 

Corresponding  saccharo- 
meter,  statement  in 
per  cent. 

bo 

o 

5 
o, 

02 

Corresponding  saccharo- 
meter,  statement  in 
per  cent. 

•  \atn  ,.\,  mil 

Specific  gra\ 

Correspondi: 
meter,  stal 
per  cent. 

Specific  gra\ 

If  « 
O 

Specific  grav 

£  ^  £ 
I3' 

.0240 

6.000 

1.0290 

7.219 

1.0340 

8.438 

1.0390 

9.657 

1.0440  10.857 

1.0490 

12.047 

241 

024 

291 

244 

341 

463 

391 

681 

441 

881 

491 

071 

242 

048 

292 

268 

342 

488 

392 

706 

442 

904 

492 

095 

243 

073 

293   292 

343 

512 

393 

731 

443 

928 

493 

119 

244 

097 

294 

316 

344 

536 

394 

756 

444 

952 

494 

142 

245 

122 

295 

341 

345 

560 

395 

780 

445 

976 

495 

166 

246 

146 

296 

365 

346 

584 

396 

804 

44611.000 

496 

190 

247 

170 

297 

389 

347 

609 

397 

828 

447 

023 

497 

214 

248 

195 

298 

413 

348 

633 

398 

853 

448 

047 

498 

238 

249 

219 

299 

438 

349 

657 

399 

877 

449 

081 

499 

261 

1.0250 

244 

1.0300 

463 

1.0350 

681 

1.0400 

901 

1.0450 

095 

1.0500 

285 

251 

268 

301 

488 

351 

706 

401 

925 

451 

119 

501 

309 

252 

292 

302 

512 

352 

731 

402 

950 

452 

142 

502 

333 

253 

316 

303 

536 

353 

756 

403 

975 

453 

166 

503 

357 

254 

341 

304 

560 

354 

780 

404 

10.000 

454 

190 

504 

381 

255 

365 

305 

584 

355 

804 

405 

023 

455   213 

505 

404 

256 

389 

306 

609 

356 

828 

406 

047 

456   238 

506 

428 

257 

413 

307 

633 

357 

853 

407 

071 

457   261 

507 

452 

258 

438 

308 

667 

358 

877 

408 

095 

458   285 

508 

476 

259 

463 

309 

681 

359 

901 

409 

119 

459   309 

509 

500 

1.0260 

488 

1.0310 

706 

1.0360 

925 

1.0410 

142 

1.0460 

333 

1.0510 

523 

261 

512 

311 

731 

361 

950 

411 

166 

461 

359 

511 

547 

262 

536 

312 

756 

362 

975 

412 

190 

462   381 

512 

571 

263 

560 

313 

780 

363 

9.000 

413 

214 

463   404 

513 

595 

264 

584 

314 

804 

364 

024 

414 

238 

464 

428 

514 

619 

265 

609 

315 

828 

365 

048 

415 

261 

465 

452 

515   642 

266 

633 

316 

853 

366 

073 

416 

285 

466 

476 

516 

666 

267 

657 

317 

877 

367 

097 

417 

309 

467 

500 

517 

690 

268 

681 

318 

901 

368 

122 

418 

333 

468 

523 

518 

714 

269 

706 

319 

925 

369 

146 

419 

357 

469 

547 

519 

738 

1.0270 

731 

1.0320 

950 

1.0370 

170 

1.0420 

381 

1.0470   571 

.0520 

761 

271 

756 

321 

975 

371 

195 

421 

404 

471   595 

521 

785 

272 

780 

322 

8.000 

372 

219 

422 

428 

472 

619 

522 

809 

273 

804 

323 

024 

373 

244 

423 

452 

473 

642 

523 

833 

274 

828 

324 

048 

374 

268 

424 

476 

474 

676 

524 

857 

275 

853 

325 

073 

375 

292 

425 

500 

475 

690 

525 

881 

276 

877 

326 

097 

376 

316 

426 

523 

476 

714 

526 

904 

277 

901 

327 

122 

377 

341 

427 

547 

477 

738 

527 

928 

278 

925 

328 

.146 

378 

365 

428 

571 

478 

761 

528 

952 

279 

950 

329 

170 

379 

389 

429 

595 

479 

785 

529 

976 

1.0280 

975 

1.0330 

195 

1.0380 

413 

1.0430 

619 

1.0480 

809 

1.0530 

13.000 

281 

7.000 

331 

219 

381 

438 

431 

642 

481 

833 

531 

023 

282 

024 

332 

244 

382 

463 

432 

666 

482 

857 

532 

047 

283 

048 

333 

268 

383 

488 

433 

690 

483 

881 

533 

071 

284 

073 

334 

292 

384 

512 

434 

714 

484 

904 

534 

095 

285 

097 

335 

316 

385 

536 

435 

738 

485 

928 

535 

119 

286 

122 

336 

341 

386 

560 

436 

761 

486 

952 

536 

142 

287 

146 

337 

365 

387 

584 

437 

785 

487 

976 

537 

166 

288 

170 

338 

389 

388 

609 

438 

809 

488 

12.000 

538 

190 

289 

195 

339 

413 

389 

633 

439 

833 

489 

023 

539 

214 

APPENDIX. 


449 


TABLE  IX. — (concluded.) 


2 

A 

2 

6 

2 

o 

JI.S 

|.2 

5  d 

1.2 

£  2 

~  a 

. 

ii 

. 

Is 

, 

li 

li 

c  '£ 

00  « 

.-t? 

a5! 

a 

g>l 

s 

ll 

25 

si 

.-*? 

«*! 

.t? 

»J 

1 

p  "tc  *» 

o  ^  ^ 

cS 
bo 

°  .-  § 

be 

111 

be 

Mi 

CC 

be 

ll- 

"> 

bo 

!** 

(9 

£<®  0 

u 

0 

id 

p-  *-  g 

« 

Isi 

0 

ted 

h's 

"S 

£  ^  0} 

*o 

2^0} 

°o 

S  "^  CD 

'3 

£*  "^  fD 

•g 

?  ®  £ 

£  »  S 

p. 
to 

I8' 

Pi 

CO 

gap, 

P. 
CO 

JSP. 

0> 

PI 
co 

gap, 

« 

CO 

Is* 

p. 

CO 

gsS, 

0 

1.0540 

13.238 

1.057714.119 

1.0614 

15.000 

1.0651  15.860 

1.068816.721 

1.0730 

17.681 

541 

261 

578 

142 

615 

024 

652 

883 

689 

744 

732 

725 

542 

285 

579 

166 

616 

046 

653 

907 

1.0690 

767 

734 

772 

543 

309 

1.0580 

190 

617 

070 

654 

930 

691 

790 

7361   818 

544 

333 

581 

214 

618 

093 

655 

953 

692 

814 

7381   863 

545 

357 

582 

238 

619 

116 

656 

976 

693 

837 

1.0740 

909 

546 

381 

583 

261 

1.0620 

139 

657 

16.000 

694 

860 

742 

954 

547 

404 

584 

285 

621 

162 

658 

023 

695 

883 

744  18.000 

548 

428 

585 

309 

622 

186 

659 

046 

696 

907 

746 

045 

549 

452 

586 

333 

623 

209 

1.0660 

070 

697 

930 

748 

090 

1.0550 

476 

587 

357 

624 

232 

661 

093 

698 

953 

1.0750 

137 

551 

500 

588 

381 

625 

255 

662 

116 

699 

976 

752 

181 

552 

523 

589 

404 

626 

278 

663 

139 

1.0700 

17.000 

754 

227 

553 

547 

1.0590 

428 

627 

302 

664 

162 

701 

022 

756 

272 

554 

571 

591 

452 

628 

325 

665 

186 

702 

045 

758 

318 

555 

595 

592 

476 

629 

348 

666 

209 

703 

067 

1.0760 

363 

556 

619 

593 

500 

1.0630 

371 

667   232 

704 

090 

762 

409 

557 

642 

594 

523 

631 

395 

668   255 

705 

113 

764 

454 

558 

666 

595 

547 

632 

418 

669;   278 

706 

136 

766 

500 

559 

690 

596 

571 

633 

441 

1.0670   302 

707 

158 

768 

545 

1.0560 

714 

597 

595 

634 

464 

671 

325 

708 

181 

1.0770 

590 

561 

738 

598 

619 

635 

488 

672 

348 

709 

204 

772 

636 

562 

761 

599 

642 

636 

511 

673 

371 

1.0710 

227 

774 

681 

563 

785 

1.0600 

665 

637 

534 

674 

395 

711 

250 

776 

727 

564 

809 

601 

690 

638 

557 

675 

418 

712 

272 

778 

772 

565 

833 

602 

714 

639 

581 

676   441 

713 

295 

1.0780 

818 

566 

857 

603 

738 

1.0640 

604 

677 

464 

714 

318 

782 

863 

567 

881 

604 

761 

641 

627 

678 

480 

715 

340 

784 

909 

568 

904 

605 

785 

642 

650 

679   511 

716 

363 

786 

954 

569 

928 

606 

809 

643 

674 

1.0680   534 

717 

386 

788 

19.000 

1.0570 

952 

607 

833 

644 

697 

681   557 

718 

409 

1.0790 

045 

571 

976 

608 

857 

645 

721 

682:   581 

719 

431 

792 

090 

572  14.00C 

609 

881 

646 

744 

683|   604 

1.0720 

454 

794 

136 

573 

023 

1.0610 

14.904 

647 

767 

684i   627 

722 

500 

796 

181 

574 

047 

611 

928 

648 

790 

685 

650 

724 

545 

798 

227 

575 

071 

612 

952 

649 

814 

686 

674 

726 

590 

1.080019.272 

576 

095 

613 

976 

1.0650 

837 

687   697 

728 

636 

2!) 


450 


APPENDIX. 


TABLE  X. —  Comparative  synopsis  of  the  areometers  for 
•  must  generally  used. 


Specific  gravity, 
degrees  (Oechsle). 

Extract,  per  cent, 
by  weight 
(Balling). 

Sugar,  per  cent, 
by  weight. 

Degrees  (Wagner). 

Specific  gravity, 
degrees  (Oechsle). 

Extract,  per  cent, 
by  weight 
(Balling). 

Sugar,  per  cent, 
by  weight. 

Degrees  (Wagner). 

Babo. 

Pillitz. 

Babo. 

Pillitz. 

1.051 

12.5 

10.5 

8.2 

7 

91 

21.8 

18.3 

17.5 

_ 

52 

12.8 

10.7 

8.5 

— 

92 

22.1 

18.5 

17.8 

— 

53 

13.0 

10.9 

8.7 

— 

93 

22.3 

18.6 

18.0 

— 

54 

13.2 

11.1 

8.9 

— 

94 

22.5 

18.8 

18.2 

— 

55 

13.5 

11.3 

9.1 

— 

95 

22.7 

18.9 

18.4 

— 

56 

13.7 

11.5 

9.4 

— 

96 

22.9 

19.0 

18.6 

— 

57 

14.0 

11.7 

9.7 

— 

97 

23.1 

19.2 

18.8 

— 

58 

14.2 

12.0 

9.9 

8 

98 

23.3 

19.3 

19.0 

— 

59 

14.4 

12.2 

10.1 

— 

99 

23.5 

19.5 

19.2 

13 

60 

14.7 

12.4 

10.4 

— 

1.00 

23.7 

19.7 

19.4 

— 

61 

14.9 

12.6 

10.6 

— 

01 

23.9 

19.9 

19.6 

— 

62 

15.1 

12.8 

10.8 

— 

02 

24.2 

20.1 

19.  9^ 

— 

63 

15.4 

13.0 

11.1 

— 

03 

24.4 

20.3 

20.1 

— 

64 

15.6 

13.3 

11.3 

— 

04 

24.6 

20.5 

20.3 

— 

65 

15.8 

13.5 

11.5 

— 

05 

24.8 

20.8 

20.5 

— 

66 

16.1 

13.7 

11.8 

9 

06 

25.0 

21.0 

20.7 

— 

67 

16.3 

13.9 

12.0 

— 

07 

25.2 

21,2 

20.9 

14 

68 

16.5 

14.1 

12.2 

— 

08 

25.4 

21.4 

21.1 

— 

69 

16.8 

14.3 

12.5 

— 

09 

25.7 

21.6 

21.4 

—  ' 

70 

17.0 

14.4 

12.7 

— 

10 

25.9 

21.8 

21.6 

— 

71 

17.2 

14.6 

12.9 

— 

11 

26.1 

22.0 

21.8 

— 

72 

17.5 

14.8 

13.2 

— 

12 

26.3 

22.2 

22.0 

— 

73 

17.7 

15.0 

13.4 

— 

13 

26.5 

22.4 

22.2 

— 

74 

17.9 

15.2 

13.6 

10 

14 

26.7 

22.6 

22.4 

— 

75 

18.1 

15.4 

13.8 

— 

15 

26.9 

22.8 

22.'  6 

— 

76 

18.4 

15.6 

14.1 

— 

16 

27.1 

23.0 

22.8 

15 

77 

18.6 

15.8 

14.3 

— 

17 

27-4 

23.2 

23.1 

— 

78 

18.8 

15.9 

14.5 

— 

18 

27-6 

23.5 

23.3 

— 

79 

19.0 

16.1 

14.7 

— 

19 

27.8 

23.8 

23.5 

— 

80 

19.3 

16.3 

15.0 

— 

20 

28.0 

24.1 

23.7 

— 

81 

19.5 

16.5 

15.2 

— 

21 

28.2 

24.3 

23.9 

— 

82 

19.7 

16.7 

15.4 

11 

22 

28.4 

24.6 

24.1 



83 

20.0 

16.9 

15.7 

— 

23 

28.6 

24.9 

24.3 

— 

84 

20.2 

17.1 

15.9 



24 

28.9 

25.2 

24.6 



85 

20.4 

17.3 

16.1 

— 

25 

29.1 

25.5 

24.8 

16 

86 

20.7 

17.4 

16.4 

— 

26 

29.3 



25.0 



87 

20.9 

17.6 

16.6 

— 

27 

29.5 



25.2 



88 

21.1 

17.8 

16.8 

— 

28 

29.7 



25.4 



89 

21.4 

18.0 

17.1 

— 

29 

29.9 



25.6 



90 

21.6 

18.2 

17.3 

12 

30 

30.1 

— 

25.8 

— 

APPENDIX. 


451 


TABLE  XI. —  Table  to  Oechsle's  areometer  for  must 


£ 

1 

bO 

8  Of 

sle's  areo- 
r  for  must. 

•-!_,  r—   i-' 

0  «  03 

*.2  * 

^^  s 

£. 

'> 

£o 

8  Of 

sle's  areo- 
r  for  must. 

'olS' 

D  N  io 

S?5S 

£, 

"> 

o3 

So 

*of 
ile's  areo- 
•  for  must. 

118, 

£5? 

gravity. 

I0f 

le's  areo- 
for  must.! 

"SIS 

&* 

d 

•3 

0. 

£•§2 

x  »  2 
£03 

Its 

£«  t* 

<» 
p. 

Ill 

H« 

a3  S  U) 

0) 

S-g£ 
rr®  » 
£oS 

8&2 

S  a  6c 

<§ 

1 

»•§  2 

*SI 

III 

;  «  to 

to 

« 

PH 

02 

p 

PH 

02 

a 

£ 

ft 

1041 

41 

8.0 

1059 

59 

13.0 

1076 

76 

17.2 

1093 

93 

21.7 

1042 

42 

8.3 

1060 

60 

13.2 

1077 

77 

17.5 

1094 

94 

21.9 

1043 

43 

8.6 

1061 

61 

13.4 

1078 

78 

17.8 

1095 

95 

22.2 

1044 

44 

8.9 

1062 

62 

13.6 

1079 

79 

18.0 

1096 

96 

22.5 

1045 

45 

9.2 

1063 

63 

13.9 

1080 

80 

18.3 

1097 

97 

22.7 

1046 

46 

9.4 

1064 

64 

14.0 

1081 

81 

18.5 

1098 

98 

23.0 

1047 

47 

9.7 

1065 

65 

14.2 

1082 

82 

18.8 

1099 

99 

23.2 

1048 

48 

9.9 

1066 

66 

14.4 

1083 

83 

19.1 

1100 

100 

23.4 

1049 

49 

10.2 

1067 

67 

14.7 

1084 

84 

19.4 

1101 

101 

23.7 

1050 

50 

10.5 

1068 

68 

15.0 

1085 

85 

19.7 

1102 

102 

23.9 

1051 

51 

10.8 

1069 

69 

15.2 

1086 

86 

20.0 

1103 

103 

24.2 

1052 

52 

11.1 

1070 

70 

15.5 

1087 

87 

20.2 

1104 

104 

24.5 

1053 

53 

11.4 

1071 

71 

15.8 

1088 

88 

20.4 

1105 

105 

24.8 

1054 

54 

11.7 

1072 

72 

16.1 

1089 

89 

20.7 

1106 

106 

25.0 

1055 

55 

11.9 

1073 

73 

16.3 

1090 

90 

20.9 

1107 

107 

25  2 

1056 

56 

12.2 

1074 

74 

16.5 

1091 

91 

21.2 

1108 

108 

25A 

1057 

57 

12.5 

1075 

75 

16.9 

1092 

92 

21.4 

1109 

109 

25.7 

1058 

58 

12.7 

TABLE  XII. —  To  Massonfour's  areometer. 


Degrees, 

Weight  of  a 

Degrees, 

Weight  of  a 

Degrees, 

Weight  of  a 

according  to 
Massonfour. 

liter, 
grammes. 

according  to 
Massoufour. 

liter, 
grammes. 

according  to 
Massoufour. 

liter, 
grammes. 

1 

1008 

8 

1059 

15 

1116 

2 

1015 

9 

1067 

16 

1125 

3 

1022 

10 

1075 

17 

1134 

4 

1029 

11 

1083 

18 

1143 

5 

1036 

12 

1091 

19 

1152 

6 

1043 

13 

1099 

20 

1161 

7 

1051 

14 

1107 

TABLE  XIII. — For  comparing  per  cent,  of  sugar  with  per  cent. 
of  extract  and  the  specific  gravity.    By  PiUitz. 


*>  —  - 

j*r 

*8"-^ 

«"? 

^^ 

-  ci 

% 

B      .Ni 
-   *    •" 

tfl  .5 

ojj> 

1-2 

"1  5 

0  ^ 

~s*? 

tf|| 

<a  t? 

&•£ 

Ig^ 

o  ^ 

Ss| 

*  ""3 

0;  u 

c«  ^  ~ 
bfid,^ 

-  «1 

ll 

0   P.C- 

p  s^C' 

ft  so 

s  p,C- 

M*  ^ 

QQ 

CS 

cc 

02 

w 

cc 

W2 

w 

0 

4.3 

1.0172 

9 

13.3 

.0543 

18 

22.3 

1.0930 

1 

5.3 

1.0212 

10 

14.3 

.0585 

19 

23.3 

1.0975 

2 

6.3 

1.0253 

11 

15.3 

.0627 

20 

24.3 

1.1017 

3 

7.3 

1.0294 

12 

16.3 

.0670 

21 

25.3 

1.1060 

4 

8.3 

1.0335 

13 

17.3 

.0713 

22 

26.3 

1.1103 

5 

9.3 

1.0376 

14 

18.3 

.0757 

23 

27.3 

1.1146 

6 

10.3 

1.0417 

15 

19.3 

.0800 

24 

28.3 

1.1189 

7 

11.3 

1.0459 

16 

20.3 

.0844 

25 

29.3 

1.1232 

8 

12.3 

1.0501 

17 

21.3 

.0887 

452 


APPENDIX. 


TABLE  XIV. — For  determining  the  content  of  per  cent,  of  acetic 
acid  contained  in  a  vinegar  of  —  specific  gravity.  Tempera- 
ture 15°  C.  (59°  F.) 

(According  to  A.  C.  Oudemans.) 


Anhydrous 
acetic  acid, 
per  cent. 

Specific 
gravity. 

Anhydrous 
acetic  acid, 
per  cent. 

Specific 
gravity. 

Anhydrous 
acetic  acid, 
per  cent. 

Specific 
gravity. 

100 

1.0553 

66 

1.0717 

32 

1.0436 

99 

1.0580 

65 

1.0712 

31 

1.0424 

98 

1.0604 

64 

1.0707 

30 

1.0412 

97 

1.0625 

63 

1.0702 

29 

1.0400 

96 

1.0644 

62 

1.0697 

28 

1.0388 

95 

1.0660 

61 

1.0691 

27 

1.0375 

94 

1.0674 

60 

1.0685 

26 

1.0363 

93 

1.0686 

59 

1.0679 

25 

1.0350 

92 

1.0696 

58 

1.0673 

24 

1.0337 

91 

1.0705 

57 

1.0666 

23 

1.0324 

90 

1.0713 

56 

1.0660 

22 

1.0311 

89 

1.0720 

55 

1.0653 

21 

1.0298 

88 

1.0726 

54 

1.0646 

20 

1.0284 

87 

1.0731 

53 

1.0638 

19 

1.0270 

86 

1.0736 

52 

1.0631 

18 

1.0256 

85 

1.0739 

51 

1.0623 

17 

1.0242 

84 

.  1.0742 

50 

1.0615 

16 

1.0228 

83 

1.0744 

49 

1.0607 

15 

1.0214 

82 

1.0746 

48 

1.0598 

14 

1.0200 

81 

1.0747 

47 

1.0589 

13 

1.0185 

80 

1.0748 

46 

1.0580 

12 

1.0171 

79 

1.0748 

45 

1.0571 

11 

1.0157 

78 

1.0748 

44 

1.0562 

10 

1.0142 

77 

1.0748 

43 

1.0552 

9 

1.0127 

76 

1.0747 

42 

1.0543 

8 

1.0113 

75 

1.0746 

41 

1.0533 

7 

1.0098 

74 

1.0744 

40 

1.0523 

6 

1.0083 

73 

1.0742 

39 

1.0513 

5 

1.0067 

72 

1.0740 

38 

1.0502 

4 

1.0052 

71 

1.0737 

37 

1.0492 

3 

1.0037 

70 

1.0733 

36 

1.0481 

2 

1.0022 

69 

1.0729 

35 

1.0470 

1 

1.0007 

68 

1.0725 

34 

1.0459 

0 

0.9992 

67 

1.0721 

33 

1.0447 

APPENDIX. 


453 


TABLE  XY. — For  determining  the  content  of  per  cent,  of  acetic 

acid  contained  in  a  vinegar  of  —  specific  gravity. 

(According  to  Mohr.) 


Anhydrous 
acetic  acid, 
per  cent. 

Specific 
gravity. 

Anhydrous 
acetic  acid, 
per  cent. 

Specific 
gravity. 

Anhydrous 
acetic  acid, 
per  cent. 

Specific 
gravity. 

100 

1.0635 

66 

1.0690 

33 

1.0440 

99 

1.0655 

65 

1.0680 

32 

1.0420 

98 

1.0670 

64 

1.0680 

31 

1.0410 

97 

1.0680 

63 

1.0680 

30 

1.0400 

96 

1.0690 

62 

1.0670 

29 

1.0390 

95 

1.0700 

61 

1.0670 

28 

1.0380 

94 

1.0706 

60 

1.0670 

27 

1.0360 

93 

1.0708 

59 

1.0660 

26 

1.0350 

92 

1.0716 

58 

1.0660 

25 

1.0340 

91 

1.0721 

57 

1.0650 

24 

1.0330 

90 

1.0730 

56 

1.0640 

23 

1.0320 

89 

1.0730 

55 

1.0640 

22 

1.0310 

88 

1.0730 

54 

1.0630 

21 

1.0290 

87 

1.0730 

53 

1.0630 

20 

1.0270 

86 

1.0730 

52 

1.0620 

19 

1.0260 

85 

1.0730 

51 

1.0610 

18 

1.0250 

84 

1.0730 

50 

1.0600 

17 

1.0240 

83 

1.0730 

49 

1.0590 

16 

1.0230 

82 

1.0730 

48 

1.0580 

15 

1.0220 

81 

1.0732 

47 

1.0560 

14 

1.0200 

80 

1.0735 

46 

1.0550 

13 

1.0180 

79 

1.0735 

45 

1.0550 

12 

1.0170 

78 

1.0733 

44 

1.0540 

11 

1.0160 

77 

1.0732 

43 

1.0530 

10 

1.0150 

76 

1.0730 

42 

1.0520 

9 

1.0130 

75 

1.0720 

41 

1.0510 

8 

1.0120 

74 

1.0720 

40 

1.0510 

7 

1.0100 

73 

1.0720 

39 

1.0500 

6 

1.0080 

72 

1.0710 

38 

1.0490 

5 

1.0070 

7] 

1.0710 

37 

1.0480 

4 

1.0050 

70 

1.0700 

36 

1.0470 

3 

1.0040 

69 

1.0700 

35 

1.0460 

2 

1.0020 

68 

1.0700 

34 

1.0450 

1 

1.0010 

67 

1.0690 

454 


APPENDIX. 


TABLE  XVI. —  Comparison  of  the  scales  of  Eeaumur's,  Celsius's, 
and  Fahrenheit's  thermometers. 


Reaumur. 

Celsius. 

Fahrenheit. 

Reaumur. 

Celsius. 

Fahrenheit. 

—15 

—18.75 

_ 

33 

41.25 

106.25 

14 

17.50 

0.50 

34 

42.50 

108.50 

13 

16,25 

2.75 

35 

43.75 

110.75 

12 

15.00 

5.00 

36 

45.00 

113.00 

11 

13.75 

7.25 

37 

46.25 

115.25 

10 

12.50 

9.50 

38 

47.50 

117.50 

9 

11.25 

11.75 

39 

48.75 

119.75 

8 

10.00 

14.00 

40 

50.00 

122.00 

7 

8.75 

16.25 

41 

51.25 

124.25 

6 

7.50 

18.50 

42 

52.50 

126.50 

5 

6.25 

20.75 

43 

53.75 

128.75 

4 

5.00 

23.00 

44 

55.00 

131.00 

3 

3.75 

25.25 

45 

56.25 

133.25 

2 

2.50 

27.50 

46 

57.50 

135.50 

+1 

1.25 

29.75 

47 

58.75 

137.75 

0 

0 

32.00 

48 

60.00 

140.00 

1 

1.25 

34.25 

49 

61.25 

142.25 

2 

2.50 

36.50 

50 

62.50 

144.50 

3 

3.75 

38.75 

51 

63.75 

146.75 

4 

5.00 

41.00 

52 

65.00 

149.00  ' 

5 

6.25 

43.25 

53 

66.25 

151.25 

6 

7.50 

45.50 

54 

67.50 

153.50 

7 

8.75 

47.75 

55 

68.75 

155.75 

8 

10 

50.00 

56 

70.00 

158.00 

9 

11.25 

52.25 

57 

71.25 

160.25 

10 

12.50 

54.50 

58 

72.50 

162.50 

11 

13.75 

56.75 

59 

73.75 

164.75 

12 

35.00 

59.00 

60 

75.00 

167.00 

13 

16.25 

61.25 

61 

76.25 

169.25 

14 

17.50 

63.50 

62 

77.50 

171.50 

15 

18.75 

65.75 

63 

78.75 

173.75 

16 

20.00 

68.00 

64 

80.00 

176.00 

17 

21,25 

70.25 

65 

81.25 

178.25 

18 

22.50  . 

72.50 

66 

82.50 

180.50 

19 

23.75 

74.75 

67 

83.75 

182.75 

20 

25.00 

77.00 

68 

85.00 

185.00 

21 

26.25 

79.25 

69 

86.25 

187.25 

22 

27.50 

81.50 

70 

87.50 

189.50 

23 

28.75 

83.75 

71 

88.75 

191.75 

24 

30.00 

86.00 

72 

90.00 

194.00 

25 

31.25 

88.25 

73 

91.25 

196.25 

26 

32.50 

90.50 

74 

92.50 

198.50 

27 

33.75 

92.75 

75 

93.75 

200.75 

28 

35.00 

95.00 

76 

95.00 

203.00 

29 

36.25 

97.25 

77 

96.25 

205.25 

30 

37.50 

99.50 

78 

97.50 

207.50 

31 

38.75 

101.75 

79 

98.75 

209.75 

32 

40.00 

104.00 

80 

100.00 

212.00 

INDEX 


ACCELEKATED  acidulation,  97, 
99 
Acetal,  40,  41 

composition  of  pure,  41 
different  views  of  the   constitu- 
tion of,  41 
preparation  of,  40 
properties  of,  41 
Acetaldehyde  or  acetic  aldehyde,  39, 

40 

Acetate,  aluminium,  272-274 
ammonium,  270 
barium,  271,  272 
bismuth,  297 
calcium,  270,  271 
chromic,  279 
chromous,  279 
cobalt,  279 
dibasic  cupric,  283 
ferrous,  275 
lead,  neutral,  287-295 
magnesium,  272 
manganese,  274,  275 
mercuric,  298 
mercurous,  297,  298 
neutral  cupric,  280-283 
ferric,  276-278 
formation  of,  43 
nickel,  279 

of  ammonia,  neutral,  270 
of  lead,  composition,  properties, 

and  uses  of,  293-295 
potassium  acid,  268,  269 

neutral,  267,  268 
sesquibasic  cupric,  283 
silver,  298 
sodium,  269,  270 
strontium,  272 
tin,  297 

tribasic  cupric,  283 
uranium,  297 
zinc,  279 

Acetates  and  their  manufacture,  266- 
298 


Acetates — 

basic  cupric,  283-287 

lead,  295-297 
chromium,  278,  279 
commercial,  preparation  of  acetic 

acid  from,  256-265 
iron,  275-278 
lead,  287-297 

obtained  from  wood-vinegar,  pre- 
paration of  acetic  acid  from, 
256-265 

of  copper,  280-287 
preparation  of,  267 
solubility  of,  267 
used  for  the  preparation  of  acetic 

acid,  256 
Acetic  acid,  42-44 

and  water,  specific  gravity  of 

mixtures  of,  42,  43 
application  of,  43 
calculation  for  finding  quan- 
tity   of,    in    vinegar, 
209 

of  the  heat  liberated  by 
the  conversion  of  al- 
cohol into,  46 
of  the  theoretical  yield 
of,  from  alcohol,  44, 
45 
of    the   yield   of,    from 

malt,  158,  159 
cause  of  the  large    amount 
of,    produced   during   the 
destructive  distillation   of 
wood,  219 
destruction  of,  by  the  vinegar 

ferment,  106 
determination  of,  117 

by  titration,  with  illus- 
tration, 208,  209 
of   empyreumatic    sub- 
stances in,  254 
of   the    content   of,    in 
vinegar,  112 


456 


INDEX. 


Acetic  acid — 

disturbances  referable  to  the 
quantity  of  newly-formed, 
127-129 

formation  of,  by  the  action 
of  platinum    black,    illus- 
trated, 24,  25 
for  technical  purposes,  240 
free,  in  the  water  of  a  river 

of  Brazil,  24 
from  calcium  acetate,  Volck- 

el's  method,  258-261 
from  lead  acetate,  256,  257 
from   sodium   acetate,   262- 

265 

from  strong  vinegar,  255 
glacial,    first     obtained     by 

Loewitz,  18 

influence  of,  upon  the  vine- 
gar ferment,  106 
in    the     mineral    water    of 

Briickenau,  24 
in  wine,  177 
limit  in  vinegar  of,  106 
method  of  fixing  it  on  lime, 

256 

mode  of  obtaining,  42 
Mollerat's  method  of  prepar- 
ing, illustrated,  263-265 
most     suitable    varieties    of 

wood  for,  229 
oil  of  lemon  as  a  test  of  pure, 

266 

origination  of,  23,  24 
preparation  of,  from  com- 
mercial acetates  and 
from  those  obtained 
from  wood  -  vinegar, 
256-265 

of  vinegar  with  a  high 
percentage    of,     119, 
120 
of,  without  distillation, 

257,  258 
principal   acetates    used   for 

the  preparation  of,  256 
properties  of,  42,  266 
pure  concentrated,  prepara- 
tion of,  253-266 
quantity  of  air  required  to 
convert  alcohol  into, 
45,  46 
of  oxygen  required  for 

the  formation  of,  45 
replacement  of  hydrogen  by 
a  metal  in,  266,  267 


Acetic  acid — 

samples   for  the  determina- 
tion of,  122 
Schnedermann's   method  of 

preparing,  261,  262 
still  for  the  rectification  of, 

260 
strong,  from  copper  acetate 

(verdigris),  18 
summary   of  the   formation 

of,  37 

table  of  content  of  alcohol 
required  in   a   liquid 
for  the  production  of 
vinegar    with    a   cer- 
tain content  of,  108 
of  theoretical  yield  of, 
from  alcohol,  107,  108 
tables   for   determining    the 
content  of  per  cent,  of,  in 
vinegar  of —  specific  grav- 
ity, 452,  453 

theoretical  yields  of,  44-48 
theory  of  the  formation  of, 
established    by    Doberei- 
ner,  21 
variations    in     the     specific 

gravity  of,  42 

yields  of,  obtained  in  prac- 
tice, 48,  49 

aldehyde  or  acetaldehyde,  39,  40 
anhydride,  determination    of,   in 
vinegar,  or  acetometry,     204- 
209 
ether,  40 

addition  to  vinegar  of,  145 
composition    and   properties 

of,  174,  175 

preparation  of,  173-175 
Acetometry  or  determination  of  acetic 

anhydride  in  vinegar,  204-209 
Acetone,  crude,  how  obtained,  242 
or  dimethyl  ketone,  234,  235 
preparation  of,  from  barium  ace- 
tate, 271,  272 
properties  of,  234,  235 
Acetous  degeneration  of  wine,  177 

remedies  for,  177 
fermentation,  change  of  fusel  oils 

in,  39 

induction  of,  37 
products  of,  38-49 
summary   of    the    processes 

taking  place  in,  38 
Acid,  acetic,  42,  44 

application  of,  43 


INDEX. 


457 


Acid,  acetic — 

determination    of    chemical 

constitution  of,  18 
discovery  of  the  generation 

of,  18 

from  verdigris,  18 
formation  of,  by  the  action 
of  platinum   black,    illus- 
trated, 24,  25 
in     the    mineral     water    of 

Brttckenau,  24 
in  the  water  of  a  river  of 

Brazil,  24 

mode  of  obtaining,  42 
origination  of,  23,  24 
properties  of,  42 
summary   of   the   formation 

of,  37 

theoretical  yields  of,  44-48 
theory  of  the  formation  of, 
established     by    Doberei- 

mer,  21,  22 
variations    in     the     specific 

gravity  of,  42 
and  sugar,  testing  the  must  as  to 

its  content  of,  324-327 
body,  formation  of,  in  the  dry  dis- 
tillation of  wood,  18 
carbonic,  314,  315 
free,  percentage  of,   in  different 

varieties  of  fruit,  307 
glacial  acetic,  18 
malic,  decomposition  of,  193 
succinic,  39 

formation  and  properties  of, 

313,  314 

sulphurous,  apparatus  for  the  de- 
velopment of,  illustrated, 

135,    136 

for  the  suppression  of  vine- 
gar eels,  134 

tartaric,  decomposition  of,  193 
to  find  the  quantity  of,  in  must, 

324,  325 

Acidity  in  cider,  349 
Acids,    action    of  various,  upon   cel- 
lulose, 218 

of  various,  upon  woods,  218 
detection  of,  in  vinegar,  209-211 
disappearance  of,  in  ripening 

fruits,  305 
in  fruits,  309 
occurring  in  wood-vinegar,  246, 

247 

Acidulation,  accelerated,  97-99 
object  of,  96 


Acidulation — 

of  the  generators,  96,  97 
Adulteration  of  cider,  350,  352 
Aerometer  for  must,  Oechsle's,  table 

to,  451 

Massonfour's,  table  to,  451 
Aerometers  for  must,  table  of  com- 
parative synopsis  of,  450 
table     for     comparing    the    clif. 
ferent,    with     Tralles's     alco- 
holometer, 436 
Air,  absorption  of  moisture  by,  404, 

405 

difficulty  in  conveying  the  requi- 
site amount  of,  to  the  genera- 
tor, 53 

quantity  of,  required  to  convert 

alcohol  into  acetic  acid,  45,  46 

quantity    of,    which    must    daily 

pass   through  each   generator, 

46 

reciprocal    action    between   the, 

and  the  vinegar,  144,  145 
Albucases,  discovery  of,  how  to  obtain 

vinegar  colorless,  by,  18 
Albuminous  substances  in  fruits,  309, 

310 

Alcohol,  absolute,  definition  of,  313 
addition    of.     to     the    alcoholic 

liquid,  118 

and  water,  table  showing  the 
actual  content  of,  in  mixtures 
of  both  tin-ids,  and  the  contrac- 
tion which  takes  places  in  mix- 
ing, 435 
calculation  for  the  dilution  of, 

109 

of  the  heat  liberated  by  its 
conversion  into  acetic  acid, 
46 
of  the  theoretical   yield    of 

acetic  acid,  from,  44,  45 
contraction    of,    in    mixing   with 

water,  116 
conversion   of,    into  acetic    acid 

and  water,  38 
determination  of,  110,  111,  117, 

198 
by  means  of  the  ebullioscope, 

201-204 
by  the  distilling  test,    199- 

201 
of  chemical  constitution  of, 

18 

with  the  alcoholmeter,  198, 
199 


458 


INDEX. 


Alcohol— 

from  wood,  217 

heat  liberated  by  the   oxidation 

of,  190 
influence   of,    upon   the   vinegar 

ferment,  106 

quantity  of  air  required  for  the 
conversion  of,  into  acetic  acid, 
45,  46 

reduction  of,  with  water,  116 
samples  for  the  determination  of, 

122 
table,  Hehner's,   431,  432 

indicating  the  specific  gravity 
of  mixtures  of  water  and, 
433 
of  theoretical  yield  of  acetic 

acid  from,  107,  108 
the  ultimate  material  for  the  fab- 
rication of  vinegar,  51 
yield  of  acetic  acid  from,  195 

from  sugar,  195 
Alcoholic  ferment,  23 

fluid,  arrangements  for  the  distri- 
bution of  the,  in  the  gen- 
erator, illustrated,  61-65 
quantity    of,    to     be     daily 
worked  in  a  generator,  116 
fluids,  table  for  the  determination 
of  the  true  volume  of, 
from  the  apparent  vol- 
ume, 444,  445 
of   proportion    between 
per  cent,    by  weight 
and  by  volume,  434 
liquid,  addition  of  alcohol  to  the, 

118 

of  beer,  sweet  beer- wort, 
malt  extract,  etc.,  to, 
126 

of  phosphates  to,  127 
apparatus    for   heating  the, 
illustrated  and  described, 
94-96 

constitution  of  the  funda- 
mental materials  used  in 
the  preparation  of,  112- 
115 

definition  of,  104 
disadvantages  of  pouring  the, 
at  stated  intervals,  80-82 
examples  of  the  composition 

of,  109 

gradual  strengthening  of,  11 7 
methods  of  preparing,  105 


Alcoholic  liquid — 

preparation  of,  104-115 

of,  according  to  rational 

principles,  111,  112 
of,  for  1 2  per  cent,  vin- 
egar, 123 

quantities  of  beer  and  vine- 
gar for,  107 
receipts  for,  109 
the  role  of  vinegar  in,  104 
use  of  simple  automatic  con- 
trivances for  the  effusion 
of  the,  82 
mashes  as  material  for  vinegar, 

156 
Alcoholometer  determination  of  the 

alcohol  with  the,  198,  199 
Alcoholometers,  198 

for  use  in  a  vinegar  factory,  199 
Aldehyde  and  its  composition,  22 
derivation  of  the  term  of,  39 
formation  of,  39 
preparation  of  pure,  40 
properties  of  pure,  40 
Alden  apparatus,  illustrated  and  de- 
scribed, 407-409 
manner    of    operating    the, 

413,  414 

process,  prize  awarded  at  the 
Paris  exhibition  to  fruit  dried 
by  the,  402 

Ale,  sour,  as  material  for  vinegar,  162 
Alkaloid  in  wine,  315 
Aluminium  acetate,  272-274 
American  canning  factories,  secret  of 
the  great  reputation  of  the 
products  of,  391 
champagne,  329 
ciders,  adulteration  of,  352 
fruit  evaporator,  illustrated  and 

described,  412,  413 
Manufacturing  Co.,  fruit  evapo- 
rator  manufactured  by,    illus- 
trated and  described,  412,  413 
preserving  establishments,  kettle 
used    in,    illustrated    and   de- 
scribed, 399,  400 
Ammonia  solution  of,  207 
Ammonium  acetate,  270 
Amyl  acetate,  114 

addition  to  vinegar  of,  145 
Analyses  of  ciders  by  the  U.  S.  Agri- 
cultural Department,  331,  332 
Anchovy  vinegar,  172 
Anise  vinegar,   172 


INDEX. 


459 


Anthon's  tables  for  finding  the  content 
of  anhydrous  grape-sugar  in  a  solu- 
tion of  glucose,  328,  329 
Apparatus,  continuously  acting ;  the 

terrace  system,  82-87 
periodically  working  ;  the  three- 
group  system,  87-90 
Apple-butter,    manufacture   of,    388, 

389 

elevator,      illustrated     and     de- 
scribed, 323,  324 
grinder,   Davis' s,  illustrated  and 

described,  317,  318 
jelly,  favorite  package  for,  397, 

398 
manufacture  of,    in  Oswego 

Co.,   N.  Y.,  394-399 
proper  consistency  of,  397 
without  sugar  as  made  in  the 

U.  S.,  392,  393 
marmalade,  perfumed,  392 
pomace,  expression  of,  335,  336 

vinegar  from,  168 
seeds,  diversity  of  opinion  as  re- 
gards the  crushing  of,  335 
value  of,  398 

wine,  red,  preparation  of,  343 
Apples  and  pears,  cider  from,  329-356 
bleaching  of,  415,  416 
choice  of  varieties  of,  in  the  man- 
ufacture of  cider,  332 
cider  from,  329-354 
crushing  mill  for,  illustrated  and 

described,  317 

evaporated  and  dried,  export  of 
from  the  U.  S.,  in  1888, 
401,  402 

packing  of,  414,  415 
extraction  of  the  juice  of,  by  dif- 
fusion, 336-339 
fermentation  of  the  juice  of,  339, 

340 

grinding  of,  335 
most  noted  varieties  of,  for  the 

manufacture  of  cider,  333 
preparation  of  the  juice  of,   for 

distillation,  353 
prices  paid  in  1880  and  1881  for, 

.  39® 
ripening,  gathering,  and  sweating 

of,  334 
select  list  of,  for  the  Eastern  and 

Middle  States,  333,  334 
table  of  changes  effected  in  the 

composition  of,  by  drying  and 

evaporating,  406 


Apples  and  pears — 

test  for  tannin  in  the  juice  of, 

333 

testing  the  juice  of,  339 
Apricot  and  peach  wines,  preparation 

of,  369 
Aromatic  or  hygienic  mustard,  426 

vinegar,  171 

Aromatized  vinegar,  169 
Arrangement  of  a  vinegar  factory,  68- 

72 

according  to  the 
automatic  princi- 
ple, 90-96 

of  the  generators,  54-65 
Artificial   ventilation   of  the  vinegar 

generators,  73-80 
Assmus,  products  obtained  from  wood 

by,  252 

Au    Baine-Marie,    method    of    pre- 
serving, 372 
Automatic  contrivance,  regulation  of 

the,  124 
vinegar  apparatus,  80-96 


BACHET,  experiments  by,  218 
Bacteria,  26,  27 
Bag-filter  for  vinegar,  illustrated  and 

described,  151,  152 
Barberries,  pickling  of,  422 
Barium  acetate,  .271,  272 
Baroulier,  observations  on  wood,   by, 

217 

Barrels,  filling  of,  144 
Barry,    P.,    apples  for  cider,   recom- 
mended by,  333 
select  list  of  apples  for  the 
Eastern  and  Middle  States, 
recommended  by,  333,  334 
Basic  cupric  acetates,  283-287 

lead  acetates,  295-297 
Beans,  pickling  of,  422 
Beech,  products  obtained  from  the  dis- 
tillation of,  251 
shavings,  active  surface  of,  66 
drying  of,  67 

manner  of  filling  the  genera- 
tor with,   68 
number   of,   required  for   a 

generator,  66 
size  of,  for  generators,  66 
steaming  of,  66,  67 
swelling  of,  67 

Beechwood  shavings  for  filling  gene- 
rators, 65 


460 


INDEX. 


Beer,  determination  of  vinegar  from, 

213 

nourishing  fluid  from,  101 
quantity  of,  for  alcoholic  liquid, 

107 

sour,  as  material  for  vinegar,  162 
wort  as  material  for  vinegar,  155, 

156 
Bell-siphon,  described  and  illustrated, 

89 

Benzol,  220 
Berard,  method  of  preparing  sugar  of 

lead  recommended  by,  291,  292 
Bergot,  M.,  on  the  crushing  of  apple- 
seeds,  335 

Berries,  bouquet  of  vinegar  from,  166 
difficulty  in  the  complete  fermen- 
tation of  the  juice  of,  165 
fruits  and  sugar,    vinegar  from, 

163-166 
jelly  from,  393 
manner  of  obtaining  juice  from, 

318 

Bersch,  Dr.  J.,  condensing  apparatus 
according  to,  illustrated, 
78-80 

description  of  vinegar-mite 
by,  with  illustrations,  137, 
138 

execution  of  his  process  of 
manufacturing  wine-vine- 
gar on  a  commercial  scale, 
188-193 

method  of  the  fabrication  of 
wine-vinegar,  according  to, 

185-188 

ventilating  apparatus,  ac- 
cording to,  illustrated,  77, 
78 

Berzelius,  determination  of  the  chemi- 
cal constitution  of  acetic  acid  by, 
18 
Bilberries,  use  of,  for  the  preparation 

of  vinegar,  166 
Birch,   products   obtained   by  Rothe 

from,  252 

products  obtained  from  the  dis- 
tillation of,  251 
Bismuth  acetate,  297 
Blackberry  wine,  preparation  of,  366 
Boerhaave,  method  for  the  fabrication 
of  vinegar  from  wine  made  known 
by,  19 

Boiling  of  wine-vinegar,  180 
Bois-roux,  230 
Bottling  cider,  directions  for,  344,  345 


Bouquet  bodies,  20 

Braconnot,  experiments  on  cellulose 

by,  218 

Brandy  from  plums  and  damsons,  353  < 
manufacture  of,  from  cider,  352- 

354 
Brazil,  free  acetic  acid  in  the  water 

of  a  river  of,  24 
Bremont,   Dr.,  on  the  adulteration  of 

cider,  351 

Brewing,  division  of  labor  in,  155 
Brittany  cider,  analyses  of,  330 
Briickenau,  acetic  acid  in  the  mineral 

water  of,  24 

Bucholz,  direction  for  the  preparation 
of  acetic  acid  from  lead  acetate  by, 
257 
Burette,  the,  illustrated  and  described, 

204-206 

Burgundy  from  cider,  348 
Burnt  sugar,  preparation  of,  154 
Bushnell     Company,  apple    elevator 
manufactured    by,    illustrated   and 
described,  323,  324 
Bushnell  Company.  Da  vis's  star  apple 
grinder  manufactured  by, 
illustrated  and  described, 
317,  318 

extra  power  cider  press,  il- 
lustrated and  described, 
319,  320 

farmer's  cider  press  manu- 
factured by,  illustrated  and 
described,  319 


CABBAGE,  pickling  of,  422 

\J     Cadet-Gassicourt,     receipts     for 

vinegar  by,  164 
Calcium  acetate,  270,  271 

acetic  acid  from,  258 

crude    preparation    of,   241, 

242 
destruction  of  empyreumatic 

bodies  in  crude,  261 
chloride,  265 
Calico-printing,    mordants   for,    272- 

274 
California,    evaporation   of    fruit  in, 

402 

size  of  tin-cans  in,  377 
Canned  articles,  groups  of,  embraced 

in  American  trade  lists,  374 
goods,  unreliability  of,  402,  403 
Canner,  life  trials  and  vexations  of  a, 
384 


INDEX. 


461 


Canneries,    division   of  labor  in   the 

American,  379 
manufacture  of  tin  cans   in   the 

American,  379 
preparation   of    sugar- syrup     in, 

379,  380 

Canning  and  evaporating  of  fruit, 
manufacture  of  catchups,  fruit- 
butters,  marmalades,  jellies, 
pickles,  and  mustard,  371- 
427 
factory,  arrangement  of  a,  381, 

382 

fruits,    national    importance    of, 
for  the  United  States  and  Eng- 
land, 374 
fruits,  suitable  and  unsuitable  for, 

375 

varieties  of  fruits  preferred  by  the 
North  American  factories  for, 
375,  376 
Cans,   apparatus  for  the  expulsion  of 

air  from,  379,  380 
bath  for,  383 
importance  of,  376 
labelling  of,  383 
method     of    heating    in    boiling 

water,  380 

preserving  in  air-tight,  374-385 
steaming  of,  379 
testing  of,  383 

"Cappers"  and  their  work,  383 
Caramel,  preparation  of,  154 
Carbonate  of  lead  by  the  Clichy  and 

the  Dutch  processes,  296 
Carbonic  acid,  314,  315 

quantity  of,  developed  dur- 
ing fermentation,  315 
Casks,  acidulation  of,  182 
Catchups,  385-388 
Cauliflower,  pickling  of,  422 
Celery  vinegar,  173 
Cellulose,  action  of  alkaline  solutions 

upon,  218 

action  of  various  acids  upon,  218 
composition  of,  215 
conversion  of,  into  dextrin  and 

starch,  217 
conversion  of,  into  gun-cotton,  218 
Champagne  cider,  329 

manufacture  of,  347,  348 
gooseberry,  363-365 
Charbon  roux,  230 
Charcoal,  230-232 

apparatus  for  the  abstraction  of, 
227 


harcoal — 

composition  of,  230 
for  filling  generators,  65 
influence  of  the  degree  of  carbon- 
ization and   of  the  variety  of 
wood  upon  the  yield  of,  231 
properties  of,  232 
quantity  of,    obtained  at  various 

temperatures,  231 
torrified,  230 
wood-vinegar,    wood-spirit,    and 

tar,  yield  of,  250-253 
Charcoals,  difference  in  the  elemen- 
tary composition  of,  231 
for  technical  purposes,  230,  2.31 
Chemical  examination  of  the  raw  ma- 
terials and  control  of  the  operations 
in  a  vinegar  factory,  197-209 
Cherries,  difficulties  in  canning,  375 
Cherry-wine,  preparation  of,  368 
Chillies   in  vinegar,  determination  of, 

214 
Christl,  acetic  acid  obtained  from  lead 

acetate  by,  258 
Chromic  acetate,  279 
Chromium  acetates,  278,  279 
Chromous  acetate,  279 
Cider,  acidity  in,  349 

adulteration  of,  350-352 

and   fruit-wines,    practice  of  the 

preparation  of,  316-329 
artificial  wines  from,  348,  349 
clarification  of,  342 
Devonshire,  345 
directions  for  bottling,  344,  345 
diseases  of,  349,  350 
distillation  of,  353,  354 
for  export,  treatment  of,  342 
freezing  of,  346,  347 
from  apples,  329-354 
from  apples  and  pears,  329-356 
heating  of,  345,  346 
manufacture    of    brandy    from, 

352-354 
manufacture  of,  in  the  Island  of 

Jersey,  345 
mill,  English,  316 

portable,  invented  by  \>  .  (J. 

Hickock,  316 

Willson's  telegraph,  illus- 
trated and  described,  322, 
323 

minimum  limit  for  the  composi- 
tion of  pure,  351 
modes  of  improving  the  taste  of, 
342,  343 


462 


INDEX. 


Cider- 
preparation     of,    in     the     same 
manner   as    other   fruit-wines, 
343 
press,  "extra  power,"  illustrated 

and  described,  319,  320 
"  Farmer's,"  illustrated  and 

described,  319 

sweet,  preparation  of,  343,  344 
turbidity  of,  350 
turning  black  of,  350 
vinegar,  16G-168 
viscosity  or  greasy  appearance  of, 

349,  350 
'what  it  is,  166 

Ciders,    analyses   of,    by   the   U.   S. 
Agricultural        Depart- 
ment, 331,  332 
of,  from  different  parts  of 

France,  330 
fruit-wines,  etc.,  manufacture  of, 

299-369 

type  of  composition  for  pure,  331 
Claret-wine  from  cider,  349 
Cleopatra,  solution  of  large  pearls  in 

vinegar  by,  1 7 
Clove-vinegar,  1  73 
Cobalt  acetate,  279 
Coloring  vinegar,  153,  154 
Compound  ethers,  conversion  of  fusel 

oils  into,  114 
formation  of,  43,  44 
tarragon  vinegar,  172 
Compressed  yeast,  manufacture  of,  in 
connection    with    that    of 
vinegar,  156 
preparation  of,  160 
Condensation  and  ventilation,   gene- 
rators with  constant.  77-80 
of  vapors,  80 
Condenser  for  four  retorts,  dimensions 

of,  229 

Condensers,  227-229 
Condensing    apparatus   according    to 

Bersch,  illustrated,  78-80 
Constitution  of  the  fundamental  ma- 
terials used  in  the   preparation  of 
alcoholic  liquids,  1 1  2-1 1 5 
Continuously   acting   apparatus ;    the 

terrace  system,  82-87 
Copper,  acetates  of,  280-287 

detection  of,  in  vinegar,  211,  212 
Cork  for  filling  generators,  65 
Cosmetic  vinegar,  171 
Crace-Calvert,    formulaB    for   a   mor- 
dant by,  273,  274 


"Crossing"  the  generators,  122,  123 
Crushing-mill   for   apples,    illustrated 

and  described,  317 
Cucumber  catchup,  387 
Cucumbers,  pickling  of,  422 

vinegar  for  the  preservation  of, 

254,  255 

Cultivation,  abortive,  of  vinegar  fer- 
ment, with  illustration,  102 
pure,  of  vinegar  ferment,  99-101 
Currant  catchup,  388 

wine,  methods  of  preparing,  358- 

360 

Currants,  preparation  of  vinegar  from 
the  juice  of,  165,  166 


DAMSONS,  brandy  from,  353 
Daubre"e,  experiments  on  wood 

by,  217 
Davis' s  star  apple-grinder,  illustrated 

and  described,  317,  318 
Davy,  Dr.  J.,  discovery  of  the  gene- 
ration of  acetic  acid  by,  18 
Decomposition  of  wood,  216-218 

at  a  higher  temperature,  219, 

220 

Defecator,  395 
Denis-Dumont,     Dr.,    directions    for 

bottling  cider  by,  344,  345 
Detection  of  acids  in  vinegar,    209- 

211 

of  metals  in  vinegar,  211,  212 
Determination  of  acetic  anhydride  in 
vinegar    or   acetometry,    204- 
209 

of  alcohol,  198 
of  sugar,  197,  198 
of  the  alcohol  by  means  of  the 
ebullioscope,  201-204 
by   the    distilling    test, 

199-201 
with  the  alcoholometer, 

198,  199 
of  the  derivation  of  a  vinegar, 

212-214 
of  the  strength  of  wood-vinegar, 

235-237 

of  the  true  strengths  of  spirit  for 
the  normal  temperature  of  59° 
F.,  437,  438 
Deviations  from  the  regular  order  of 

working,  causes  of,  115 
Devonshire-cider,  345 
Devonshire,    England,    reputation  of 
the  cider  of,  330 


INDEX. 


463 


Dextrin  and  maltose,  proportion  of, 

in  malt,  157 

conversion  of  cellulose  into,  217 
Diacetate,  potassium,  268,  269 
Diastase,  after-effect  of,  158 
effective,  158 
property  of,  50 
what  it  is,  154 
Dibasic  cupric  acetate,  283 
Diffusion,  extraction  of  the  juice  by, 

336-339 

Dimethyl  ether,  formation  of,  250 
Discovery  of  vinegar,  17 
Disease,  bacteria,  causing,  26,  27 
Diseases  of  cider,  349,  350 
Disk  of  the  generator,  with  illustra- 
tions, 59,  60 
with  wooden  tubes,  described  and 

illustrated,  61 
Distillation  of  cider,  353,  354 

of  wood,  220-230 

Distilling  apparatus  for  the  determi- 
nation   of   alcohol,    illustrated 
and  described,  199-201 
industry,  division  of  labor  in  the, 

155 
test,  determination  of  the  alcohol 

by  the,  199-201 
Disturbances,  causes  of,  and  remedy 

for,  125 

due  to  a  want  of  nourishing  sub- 
stances of  the  ferment,  1 26 
to  vinegar  eels,  131-137 
to     vinegar     lice      (vinegar 

mites),  137,  138 
frequent  occurrence  of,   125 
referable  to  the  quantity  of  newly- 
formed  acetic  acid,  127-129 
Disturbing  influences  in  the  fabrica- 
tion of  vinegar,  125-139 
Dobereiner,  directions  for  the  prepa- 
ration of  vinegar,  by,  164 
study  of  acetic  acid  by,  18 
theory  of  the  formation  of  acetic 

acid,  established  by,  21 
Doughing  in,  159 

Drosophila   funebris,    Meig,    descrip- 
tion of,  139 
Drying,  theory  of,  405 
Dusseldorf  mustard,  426 
sour  mustard,  426 


E 


BULLTOSCOPE,  determination 
of  the  alcohol  by  means  of  the, 
with  illustration,  201-204 


Eel,  vinegar,  114 

appearance  of,  in  the  manu- 
facture   of    wine-vinegar, 
184,  185 
description  and  illustrations 

of,  131-133 
disturbances    due    to,    131- 

137 
remedies  for  the  suppression 

of,  134-136 

Effervescing  vinegar,  172 
Elderberry     flowers,      picklin<r     of, 

422 
-wine,     preparation     of,     366, 

367 

Empyreumatic  substances,  determina- 
tion of,  in  acetic  acid,  254 
England,   dimensions  of  retorts  used 

in,  221 
fabrication  of  pear  cider  in,  354, 

355 

law  against  soldering  tin  cans  in- 
side in,  377 
manufacture  of  mustard  in,  424 

of  verdigris  in,  285 
method  of  drying  fruit  in,  420 
national    importance    of  canning 

fruits,  for,  374 

retorts  in  general  use  in.,  222 
size  of  tin  cans  in,  377 
j  English  bamboo,  pickling  of,  423 
cider  mill,  316 
method  of  ventilating  generators, 

with  illustration,  73-75 
mustard,  427 

verdigris,  composition  of,  285 
Ethene,  formation  of,  250 
Ether,  acetic,  40 

preparation  of,  173,  175 
formic,  40 

light  oxygenated,  22 
oeanthic,  115 
Ethers,  compound,  conversion  of  fusel 

oils,  into,  1 14 

formation  of,  43,  44 

Evaporating    and    canning    of  fruits, 

etc.,  371-427 
Evaporation  of  fruit,  400-420 

theory  of,  403-405 
Evaporator,  396 

Alden's,  illustrated  and  described, 

407_409 

American,     illustrated    and    de- 
scribed, 412,  413 
improved    Williams,    illustrated 
and  described,  410-412 


464 


INDEX. 


Examination  of  vinegar  as  to  the 
presence  of  foreign  acids  and  of 
metals,  as  "well  as  to  its  derivation, 
209-214 

Execution  of  Bersch's  process  of  manu- 
facturing   wine-vinegar    on    a 
commercial  scale,  188-193 
of  the  work  in  a  vinegar  factory, 

115-125 
Extraction  of  the  juice  by  diffusion, 

336-339 
Extract  of  lead,  manufacture  of,  295, 

296 

Extra-power  cider  press,  illustrated 
and  described, 
319,  320 

platform  of,  illus- 
trated and  de- 
scribed, 320,  321 


TIABRICATION    of  vinegar  with 
J]         the  assistance  of  platinum  black, 

143,  144 

of  wine- vinegar,  175-197 
Factories,    vinegar,     with    automatic 
arrangements,      group-system      in, 
123-125 
Factory,  capacity  of  a,  115 

vinegar,  arrangement  of  a,  68-72 
according     to     the 
automatic     prin- 
ciple, 90-96 

control  of  the  operations  in 
a,  and  chemical  examina- 
tion of  the  raw  materials, 
197-209 

description   and    manner   of 
operating    a    periodically 
working,    with    24   gene- 
rators, 91-94 
execution  of  the  work  in  a, 

1 1 5-1 25 

operations  in  a,  96-103 
Farmer's  cider  press,  illustrated  and 

described,  319 

Ferguson's  improved  racks,  321,  322 
Fermentation,  312,  313 

acetous,  induction  of,  37 

summary    of    the    processes 

taking  place  in,  38 
of  fruit  juices,  357,  358 
of  the  juice  of  apples,  339,  340 
pectous,  301 

various  means  for  checking,  340, 
341 


Fermentation — 

vinous,  processes  taking  place  in, 

38,  39 
Ferment,  vinegar,  27-30 

abortive   cultivation    of,    il- 
lustrated, 102 
and  its  conditions  of  life,  27- 

38 

and  the  temperature,  33,  34 
composition  of  the  nourish- 
ing substances  for,  31,  32 
conditions  most  favorable  for 
the  development   of,    30, 
31 
constituents  of  the  body  of, 

38 
contest  between  vinegar  eels 

and,  133 

cultivation  of,  186,  189,  190 
development  upon  wine  of, 

illustrated,  28,  29 
fluids  for  the  pure  cultivation 

of,  100,   101 

how  it  appears  under  the 
microscope,  •  illustrated, 
28,  29 

induction  of  the  operation 
with  artificially  raised,  99- 
103 

infection  of  wine  with,  186 
influence  of  acetic  acid  on, 

106 

of  alcohol  on,  106 
nourishing  conditions  of,  30- 

34 
process    of    nourishment  of, 

32,  33 

pure  cultivation  of,  99-101 
sensitiveness      of      the,     to 
changes   of   temperature, 
81 

sowing  of,  183 
summary  of  the  requirements 

of  the,  38 

supply  of  air  for  the,  33 
transfer  of  cultivated,  to  the 

generators,  102,  103 
Ferments,  nomenclature  of,  23 
Ferrous  acetate,  275 
Fielding,  180 
"Fielding,"  manufacture  of  vinegar 

by,  162 

Filling  of  the  generators,  65-68 
"Filling  table,"  382 
Filter  for  vinegar,  illustrated  and  de- 
scribed, 150,  151 


INDEX. 


465 


Filtering     vinegar,    advisability    of, 

148 

Filtration  of  the  vinegar,  150-152 
Fining  of  vinegar,  153 
Fir,   products  obtained  from  the  dis- 
tillation of,  251 
Flies,  vinegar,  139 
Fluid,  nourishing,  from  beer,  101 
Fluids   for    the   cultivation    of    pure 

vinegar  ferment,  100,  101 
Food,  vinegar  for  seasoning,  255 
Formic  ether,  40 
Fourcroy   and    Vauquelin,    discovery 

by,  18 

France,  adulteration  of  cider  in,  351 
analysis  of  ciders  from  different 

parts  of,  330 

clarification  of  cider  in,  342 
fielding  in,  180 
manufacture  of  perfumed  jelly  in, 

394 

of  small  cider  in,  336 
of  verdigris  in,  284,  285 
of  wine-vinegar  in,  178 
method  of  drying  fruit  in,  419 
production  of  cider  in  1883,  in, 

330 
retorts  most  frequently  used  in, 

221,  222 
use  of  salycilic  acid  prohibited  in, 

341 

Frankfort  mustard,  425 
Freezing  of  cider,  346,  347 
French   method    of    preserving   fruit 
known     as    au     Baine-Marie, 
372 

methods  of  preparing  wine- vine- 
gar, 180-185 
mustard,  425 

verdigris,  composition  of,  285 
Fruit  and    other  articles   which    are 

now  evaporated,  list  of,  402 
arrangement  of,  in  the  evapora- 
tor, 416,  417 
boiling   down    of,    in   stoneware 

pots,  373,  374 
butter,  388-390 

marmalade,  and  jelly,  388- 

399 

packing  of,  389,  390 
composition   of  the  juice  of  dif- 
ferent varieties  of,  308 
constituents  in   an   unripe,    299, 

300 

content  of  free  acid  in  different 
varieties  of,  308 
30 


Fruit- 
disadvantages   of  drying   in  the 

sun  or  in  the  oven,  405,  406 
drying  of,  in  the  oven,  419,  420 
evaporated,   advantages  of,  402, 

403 

evaporation  of,  400-420 
growing  and  ripening  stages  of  a, 

305,  306 
manner  of  gaining  the  juice  from, 

316 

object  of  evaporating,  403 
percentage  of  free   acid   in   dif- 
ferent varieties  of,  307 
of  sugar  in  different  varieties 

of,  306,  307 

preservation  of,  371-400 
preserved,  cost   of  transport  of, 

401 

proportion  between  acid,  sugar, 
pectine,  etc.,  in 
different  varieties 
of,  307 

water,  soluble  and  in- 
soluble substances, 
in   different   varie- 
ties of,  307,  308 
quantity  of  water  in  the  pulp  of 

a,  304 
rules  applicable  to  all  methods  of 

preserving,  371 

selection  of,  for  marmalade,  391 
sugar,   conversion  of  acids  into, 

305 

sun   drying  apparatus  for,  illus- 
trated and  described,  409,  410 
the  development,  ripening,   etc., 

of  a,  chemical  process,  303 
theory  of  evaporating,  403-405 
United  States  statistics  of,  401, 

402 

varieties  of,  for  evaporating,  415 
vinegar,    destruction     of    acetic 

acid  in,  147 
for  the  preservation  of,  254, 

255 
vinegars,  loss  of  the  bouquet  of, 

148 

wine,  advantages  of  a  mixture  of 
various  juices  for,  356,  357 
improvement   of  flavor  and 
keeping  qualities  of,  356. 
357 
wines,  356-369 

and   cider,    practice  of  the 
preparation  of,  316-329 


466 


INDEX. 


Fruit-wines — 

bottling  of,  358 

ciders,  etc.,  manufacture  of, 

299-369 

clarification  of,  358 
from  small  fruits,  356-368 
percentage    of    alcohol    of, 

326 
Fruits   and   their   composition,    306- 

315 

applicable  to  wine  making,  299 
berries,  and  sugar,  vinegar  from, 

163-166 

boiling  of,  for  preserving,  373 
fermentation  of  the  juices  of,  357, 

358 

inorganic  constituents  of,  312 
pectine  in,  304 
preparation  of,  for  evaporating, 

417,  418 

of,  for  preserving,   372,  373 
•results     of     the      chemical     re- 
searches  into   the  changes  of, 
304-306 

ripening  of,  299-306 
secretion  of  a  gum-like  substance 

upon  the  exterior  of,  304 
selection  and  expressing  the  juice 

of,  for  wine,  357 
solid  constituents  in  the  pulp  of, 

304 
soluble  substances  in  the  pulp  of, 

304 

suitable  and  unsuitable  for  can- 
ning, 375 
table  of  content  of  sugar  and  free 

acid  in,  165 
used  for  the  preparation  of  fruit 

wines,  306 

varieties    of,    preferred    by   the 
North   American  factories  for 
canning,  375,  376 
Further  treatment  of  freshly  prepared 

vinegar,  144-154 
Fusel  oil  in  spirits  of  wine  from  grain, 

constitution  of,  115 
of  brandy,  115 
of  potato  alcohol,  114 
oils,  114 

change   of,    in    acetous  fer- 
mentation, 39 
conversion  of,  into  compound 

ethers,  114 

formation  of  in   vinous  fer- 
mentation, 39 


GAS,  Vincent's  apparatus  for  cool- 
ing, illustrated,  228,  229 
Generator,  arrangements  for  the  dis- 
tribution of  the  alcoholic  fluid 
in  the,  with  illustrations,  61-65 

capacity  of  a,  46,  115 

comparison  of  a,  to  a  furnace,  49, 
53 

cover  of,  illustrated  and  de- 
scribed, 56,  57 

difficulty  of  conveying  the  requi- 
site amount  of  air  to  the,  53 

disadvantages  of  a  number  of 
apertures  below  the  false 
bottom  of  a,  illustrated,  57,  58 

disk  of  the,  with  illustrations,  59, 
60 

illustrated  and  described,  54-56 

induction  of  slower  work  in  a, 
119 

manner  of  filling  the,  with  shav- 
ings, 68 

Michaelis's  rotatory,  142,  143 

mode  of  calculating  the  space  re- 
quired beneath  the  lath- bottom, 
for  the  reception  of  the  fluid 
passing  through  the,  90 

number  of  beech  shavings  re- 
quired for  a,  66 

quantity  of  air,  which  must  daily 
pass  through  each,  46 

of  alcoholic  fluid  to  be  daily 
worked  in  a,  116 

Singer's,  illustrated  and  de- 
scribed, 140-142 

suitable  construction  of,  49 

with  air  tube  in  the  lower  por- 
tion, illustrated,  60,  61 
self-acting  discharge  arrange- 
ment, with  illustration,  58, 
59 

working  of  the,  how  recognized, 

97 
Generators,  acidulation  of  the,  96,  97 

arrangement  of,  in  groups,  91 
of  the,  54-65 

artificial  ventilation  of,  73-80 

control  of  the  normal  working  of 
the,  119 

crossing  of  the,  122,  123 

deficiency  of  the  present,  47 

dimensions  of  the  most  suitable, 
56 

disadvantage  of  small  and  of 
large,  55,  56 


INDEX. 


467 


Generators — 

disadvantages  of  pouring  at  stated 
intervals    the   alcoholic   liquid 
into  the,  80-82 
division   of  in  the  group-system, 

121 

filling  of  the,  65-68 
heating  of  the,  128 
materials  for  filling  the,  65 
remedies  for  strengthening  weak 

working,  126 
for  the  too  vigorous  activity 

of,  129 

sliming  of  the,  129-131 
sulphuring  of,  135,  136 
temperature  in  the  interior  of, 

117 

transfer  of  cultivated  vinegar  fer- 
ment to  the,  102,  103 
variations  in  the  dimensions  of,  55 
with    constant    condensation  and 

ventilation,  77-80 
working  too  feebly    of  the,  127, 

128 
too  vigorously  of  the,   127, 

128 

Gerber,  the  alchemist,    discovery  re- 
garding vinegar,  by,  18 
Germany,    manufacture  of  verdigris, 

in,  285 

method  of  preparing  neutral  ace- 
tate of  lead  in,  with  illustra- 
tions, 288-291 

retorts  in  general  use  in,  222 
use  of  salicylic  acid  in,  341 
Gillot,  dimensions  of  a  condenser  for 
four  retorts,  approved  by, 
229 
of  retorts  recommended  by, 

221 

percentage   of   acetic    anhydride 
obtained  from  hard  wood  by, 
251 
Glacial  acetic  acid,  265,  266 

first   obtained    by  Loe- 

witz,  18 
former   method    of  the 

preparation  of,  256 
Glass-jars,  objections  to,  376 
Glucose,  327-329 

Anthon's  tables   for  finding  the 
content   of    anhydrous   grape- 
sugar  in  a  solution  of,  328,  329 
commercial,   constitution  of,  328 
determination  of  pure  sugar  in, 
328 


Glucose — 

or  grape  sugar,  preparation  and 

properties  of,  309 
use  of,  for  sweetening  fruit-juices, 

327,  328 

Glycerin,  formation  of,  in  vinous  fer- 
mentation, 39 
occurrence    and     properties    of, 

314 

Gooseberries,  pickling  of,  423 
Gooseberry  catchup,  388 

champagne,    methods  of  prepar- 
ing, 363-365 
wine,  methods  of  preparing,  361- 

363 

Graduator,  comparison  of  a,  to  a  fur- 
nace,  53 
Grain  and  malt  vinegar,  manufacture 

of,  156-163 
vinegar,  50 

Grapes,  content  of  sugar  of,  1 95 
Grape-stalks    for    filling    generators, 

65 

stones,  extract  of,  312 
sugar  or  glucose,  preparation  and 

properties  of,  309 
wine,    percentage   of  alcohol  in, 

326 
Group-system,   120-123 

in  factories    with    automatic 

arrangements,  123-125 
Gum  and  vegetable  mucilage  in  fruits, 

310,  311 

separation  of,  in  trees,  304 
Gumpoldskirchner  must-mustard,  424, 

425 
Gun-cotton,    conversion    of    cellulose 

into,  218 
"Gyle,"  definition  of,  162 


HALLIDAY'S  apparatus,  252,  253 
Ham,  process  of  manufacturing 

vinegar  by,  52 
Hannibal,  solution  of  rocks  by  means 

of  vinegar,  by,  18 

Heating  apparatus  for  large  factories, 
described  and  illustrated, 
69-71 

for  the  alcoholic  Tumid,  de- 
scribed and  illustrated,  94- 
96 

of  cider,  345,  346 
of  the  work-room,  69-72 
the  vinegar,  with  illustration,  148, 
149 


468 


INDEX. 


Heat  liberated  by  the  conversion  of 
alcohol   into   acetic    acid, 
calculation  of,  46 
by  the  oxidation  of  alcohol, 

190 

Hehner's  alcohol  table,  431,  432 
Henry's  vinegar,  171 
Herb  vinegar,  173 
Herefordshire,  England,  reputation  of 

the  cider  of,  330 
Hickock,  W.  O.,  portable  cider  mill 

invented  by,  316 

Hippocrates,  use  of  vinegar  as  a  medi- 
cine by,  1 7 
Historical  data  regarding  vinegar,  18, 

19 

Honey,  use  of,  for  vinegar,  50 
Hornbeam,    products    obtained    from 

the  distillation  of,  251 
Horseradish  catchup,  387,  388 
Hungary,  astonishingly  low  prices  of 

wine  in,  176 
Hydrochloric    acid,    detection    of,    in 

vinegar,  210 
Hygienic  or  preventive  vinegar,  171 

TNDUCTION  of  the  operation  with 

J_     artificially  raised  vinegar  ferment, 
99-103 

Inorganic  constituents  in  fruits,  312 

Iron  acetates,  275-278 

detection  of,  in  vinegar,  21 1 
Klaproth's  tincture  of,  278 

Isinglass,    preparation   of,   for   fining 
vinegar,  153 

Isomeric,  definition  of,  303 


JARS,  objection  to,  376 
Jelly,  392-399 

clarification  of,  393 
fruit-butter  and  marmalade, 

388-399 
perfumed,  394 
Jersey,  Island  of,  manufacture  of  cider 

in,  345 
Juice,  calculation  for  the  dilution  of, 

325 

Juniperberry-wine,     preparation    of, 
367 

T7ESTNER'S  apparatus,  illustrated 
1\     and  described,  222,  223 

condenser,     illustrated    and    de- 
scribed, 227,  228 


Kettle  used  in  American  preserving 
establishments,  illustrated  and  de- 
scribed, 399,  400 

Kieff'er,  L.,  method  of  determining 
the  strength  of  wood-vinegar  by, 
236,  237 

Klaproth's  tincture  of  iron,  278 

Kremser  sour  must-mustard,  426 
sweet  must-mustard,  426 


LACTIC  acid  degeneration  of  wine, 
170 
detection     of,    in     vinegar, 

211 

Lauranguais,  discovery  by,  18 
Lead  acetate,  acetic  acid  from,  256, 

257 
decomposition    of,  by  nitric 

acid,  258 
acetates,  287-297 
carbonate    by    the    Clichy    and 

Dutch  processes,  296 
extract  of,  manufacture  of,  295, 

296 

sesquibasic  acetate,  296 
sugar  of,  287-295 
vinegar,  or  extract  of  lead,  manu- 
facture of,  295,  296 
Lechartier,  G.,  analyses  of  pure  ciders 

by,  331 

experiments  on  heating  and  freez- 
ing cider,  by,  345-347 
Lees,     preparation    of    wine-vinegar 

from,  193-197 
Lice,    vinegar,    disturbances   due   to, 

137,  138 
Liebig,   theory  of  the   formation    of 

vinegar  of,  22 

Life,  the  vinegar  ferment  and  its  con- 
ditions of,  27-38 
Light  oxygenated  ether,  22 
Loewitz,  glacial  acetic  acid  first  ob- 
tained by,  18 

Losses  in  vinegar  factories,  48 
Loss,  reduction  of,  47,  48 
Lovage  vinegar,  173 


MAGNESIUM  acetate,  272 
Maidinger  self-regulating  stove, 

78 

Malaga-wine  from  cider,  348 
Malic  acid,  decomposition  of,  193 

in    vinegar,    destruction   of 
147 


INDEX. 


469 


Malt  and  grain  vinegar,  manufacture 

of,  156-163 
and  unmalted  grain,  mixture  of, 

159 
calculation  of  the  yield  of  acetic 

acid  from,  158,  159 
determination    of  vinegar  from, 

213 

for  brewing  purposes,  157 
for  distilling  purposes,  157 
proportion  of  maltose  and  dextrin 

in,  157 
-vinegar,  50 

-wort,  conversion  into  vinegar  of 
.     the  fermented,  161-163 
Maltose  and  dextrin,   proportion  of, 

in  malt,  157 

Manganese  acetate,  274,  275 
Manganous  sulphate,  preparation  of, 

274,  275 
Manner    of     obtaining    wood     spirit 

(methyl  alcohol),  247-250 
Manufacture    of  brandy  from   cider, 

352-354 
of  ciders,  fruit- wines,  etc.,  299- 

369 
of  vinegar,  1  7-298 

from  malt  and  grain,  156-163 
of  wood- vinegar,  215-253 
Marmalade,  confusion  in  the  applica- 
tion of  the  term,  390 
derivation  of  the  term,  390 
flavoring  of,  391 
fruit-butter  and  jelly,  388-399 
manufacture  of,  390-392 
pat-king  of,  392 
Marsh  gas,  220 

Mash,  preparation  of  the.  159,  160 
special    treatment   of    the    ripe, 

160,  161 

Mashing,  theoretical  part  in,  158,  159 
Massonfour's  aerometer,  table  to,  451 
Maximum  electrical  thermometer,  de- 
scribed and  illustrated,  71,  72 
Meat,  preservation  of,  by  sodium  ace- 
tate, 269,  270  ' 
Melsen's  method  of  preparing  glacial 

acetic  acid,  265 
Mercuric  acetate,  298 
Mercurous  acetate,  297,  298 
Metallic  vessels,  material  for,  94 
Metals,  detection  of  in  vinegar,  211, 

212 
Metapectic  acid,  300 

formation  and  properties  of, 
302 


Metapectine,  formation  and  constitu- 
tion of,  300,  301 

Method  of  the  fabrication  of  vinegar 
in  apparatus  of  spe- 
cial construction,  139- 
144 

of  wine-vinegar,  accord- 
ing  to  Bersch,    185- 
188 
Methods  of  fabrication  of  vinegar,  50- 

52 
Methyl  alcohol,  manner  of  obtaining, 

247-250 

yield  of  salable,  252 
iodide,  234 
nitrate,  234 
Michaelis's  rotatory  vinegar  generator, 

142,  143 

Microscope,  how  the  vinegar  ferment 
appears  under  the,  with  illustration, 
28,  29 
Milk,  cause  of  the  turning   sour  of, 

183 

Minimum  electrical  thermometer,  72 
Mites,  vinegar,  185 

disturbances  due  to,  137,  138 
Mixed  pickles,  423 
Modern  French  method  of  preparing 

wine-vinegar,  182-185 
Mohr,  determinations  of  the  specific 

gravity  of  acetic  acid,  by,  42 
method     of      determining      the 
strength  of  wood-vinegar,  by, 
235,  236 

Mohr's  volatile  spirits  of  vinegar,  171 
Mold,  indication  of  the  formation  of, 

37 

Mollerat's  method  of  preparing  acetic 
acid,  illustrated,  263- 
265 
sodium  acetate,  of,  245, 

246 

Morello-wine,  preparation  of,  369 
Moses,  mention  of  vinegar  by,  17 
Mother-lye,  utilization  of,  246,  247 
Mother  of  vinegar,  34-37 

appearance  of,  in  the  manu- 
facture of  wine-vinegar, 
187 

composition  of,  35,  36 
development  of,  25,  26 
difference   in    opinion  as  to 

the  nature  of,  35 
erroneous  opinion    as  to  its 
part  in    tne  formation  of 
vinegar,  37 


470 


INDEX. 


Mother  of  vinegar — 

occurrence  of,  35 
substances  which  participate 
in  the  formation  of,  illus- 
trated by  an  experiment, 
36 

Mothers,  definition  of,  180 
Moutarde  aromatisee,  427 
aux  epices,  427 
de  maille,  426 
des  Jesuites,  425 
Mulberry-jelly,  393 

-wine,  preparation  of,  366 
Mulder,  analysis  of  mother  of  vinegar 

by,  36 

experiments  on  wood  by,  217 
Mushrooms,  pickling  of,  423 
Must- aerometer,  197 
Must,  calculation  of  the  sugar  which 
has  to  be  added  to  the,  326, 
327 

examination  of,  196 
table  of  comparative  synopsis  of 

the  aerometers  for,  450 
to  Oechsle's  aerometer  for, 

451 
testing  the,  as  to  its  content  of 

sugar  and  acid,  324-327 
to  find  the  quantity  of  acid  in, 

324,  325 
Mustard,  424-427 

and  pickles,  preparation  of,  420- 

427 
seasoning   for  different  varieties 

of,  424 

-seed,  use  of,  for  checking  fer- 
mentation, 340 
-vinegar,  173 
Mycoderma  aceti,  26 


NAGELI'S  view  of  the  role  of  the 
vinegar  ferment,  23 
Nanot,  M.  Jules,  method  of  extract- 
ing the  juice  of  apples  by  diffusion, 
proposed  by,  with  illustration,  337- 
339 

Naphthalin,  220 

Neuffer  and  Schlibler,  table  of  quan- 
tities of  water  contained  in  wood, 
by,  215 
Neutral  acetate,  formation  of,  43 

of  lead  (sugar  of  lead),  287- 

295 

cupric  acetate  ;    crystallized  ver- 
digris, 280-283 


Neutral- 
ferric  acetate  or  sesquiacetate  of 

iron,  276-278 
New  England,  method  of  drying  fruit 

in,  420 
Jersey,     principal     varieties     of 

apples  used  for  cider  in,  333 
York,  annual  product  of  evapo- 
rated fruit  in,  401 
Nickel  acetate,  279 
Nitric  acid,  detection  of,  in  vinegar. 

210,  211 

Normal  caustic  soda  solution,  206 
Normandy,  ciders  used  for  distillation 

in,  352 
I^rance,  reputation  of   the  cider 

of,  330 
Nourishing  conditions  of  the  vinegar 

ferment,  30-34 
fluid  for   the    vinegar    ferment, 

composition  of,  31,  32 
substances,  irregularities  due  to  a 
want  of,  126 


OAK,   products    obtained   from  the . 
distillation  of,  251 
wood  for  filling  generators,  66 
Oechsle's  aerometer  for  must,    table 

to,  451 

Oenanthic  ether,  115 
Oiling  process  for  checking  fermenta- 
tion, 340,  341 
Oil  of  cloves,  use  of,  129 
Oils,  volatile,  solution  of,  in  vinegar 

169,  170 
Old  French  method  of  manufacturing 

wine  vinegar,  180-182 
Oleiiantgas,  220 
Onions,  pickling  of,  423 
Operations  in  a  vinegar  factory,  96- 

103 
Optimum  of  the  formation  of  vinegar, 

47 

the,  definition  of,  47 
Ordinary  mustard,  425 
Osmose,  removal  of  the  water  from 
the  shavings  and  its  substitution  by 
vinegar  effected  by,  98 
Oswego  Co.,    N.  Y.,  manufacture  of 

apple  jelly  in,  394-399 
Oxygen,  quantity  of,  consumed  in  the 
formation    of    vinegar, 

45 

of,  required  to  form  acetic 
acid,  45 


INDEX. 


471 


PARAFFIN,  220 
Parapecticacid,  properties  of,  302 
Parapectine,  300 

Parsnip-wine,  preparation  of,  368 
Pasteur  and  his  researches  on  the  for- 
mation   of  wine- vinegar,  etc., 
26 

theory  of  the  formation  of  vine- 
gar of,  23 

Pathological  tannin,  31 1 
Payen,  preparation  of  tribasic  acetate 

of  lead,  according  to,  296 
Peach  and  apricot- wines,  preparation 

of,  369 

Peaches,  pickling  of,  423 
Pear  cider,  354,  355 
"  Pear  essence,"  114 
Pear  jelly,  393 

must,  port-wine  from,  355 
Pears  and  apples,  cider  from,  329-356 
bleaching  of,  415,  416 
manner  of  preserving,  373 
pickling  of,  423 
suitable  for  cider,  355 
Peck,  Dewitt  C.,  on  the  manufacture 
of  apple  jelly  in  Oswego  Co.,  N. 
Y.,  394-399 
Pectase,  300 

formation  and  constitution  of,  301 
Pectic    acid,   formation  and    proper- 
ties of,  300,  302 
Pectine,    formation   and   constitution 

of,  300 

Pectose,  what  it  is,  300 
Pectosic  acid,  300 

formation    and    constitution 

of,  301,  302 
Pectous  fermentation,  301 

substances  in  fruits,  310 
Pepper  in  vinegar,  determination  of, 

214 

Perfumed  vinegar,  168 
Periodically  working  apparatus  ;  the 

three-group  system,  87-90 
Phenol,  220 

Phillips,  composition  of  verdigris,  ac- 
cording to,  285 
Phosphates,  addition  to  the  alcoholic 

liquid  of,  127 
Physiological  tannin,  311 
Picalilly,  preparation  of,  423 
Pickles,  420-423 

and  mustard,  preparation  of,  420- 

427 

general   rules   applicable   to   the 
preparation  of,  420-422 


Pickles- 
greening  of,  422 
list  of  fruits  chiefly  used  for.    422 

423 

manner  of  packing  420 
mixed,  vinegar  for  the  preserva- 
tion of,  254,  255 
Pineapple  vinegar,  173 
Pipette,  the,  illustrated  and  described, 

204 

Plain  racks,  322 

Platinum  black,  fabrication  of  vinegar 
with  the  assistance  of,  143, 

144 

formation  of  acetic  acid  by 
the  action  of,  illustrated,  21, 

25 
Plums,  brandy  from,  353 

difficulties  in  canning,  375 
evaporated  bath  fort  4J6 
Plum-wine,  preparation  of,  369 
Port-wine  from  pear  must,  355 
Potassium  acid  acetate  or  potassium 

diacetate,  268,  269 
diacetate,  268,  269 
neutral  acetate,  267,  268 
Potatoes,  evaporated,  value  of,  419 

manner  of  evaporating,  4 1 8 
Practical  yield,  definition  of,  44 
Practice  of  the  preparation  of  cider 

and  fruit- wines,  316-329 
Preparation  of  acetic  acid  .from  com- 
mercial acetates  and  from  those 
obtained    from    wood-vinegar, 
256-265 
of    apple-juice    for    distillation, 

353 
of  crude  and  pure  sodium  acetate, 

242-247 
of  crude   calcium   acetate,    241, 

242 

of  pickles  and  mustard,  420-427 
of  pure,  concentrated  acetic  acid, 

253-266 

of  the  alcoholic  liquid,  104-115 
of  vinegar  from  sugar-beets,    163 
from  various  materials,  154— 

168 

specialties,  168-175 
of  wine- vinegar  from  lees,   193- 

197 

Preservation  of  fruit,  371-400 
Preserving  establishments,  importance 

of,  398,  399 

in  air-tight  cans,  374-385 
Press-cloths,  336 


472 


INDEX. 


Presses,  318-321 

Preventive  or  hygienic  vinegar,  171 

Products  of  acetous  fermentation,  38- 

49 

Pumice  stone  for  filling  generators,  65 
Pump,  location  of,  94 
Pyroligneous  acid,  215 


QUICK  process,  51 
appropriateness  of  the  term 

of,  53 
of    fabrication    of    vinegar, 

52-68 

perfection  of,  120 
principle  involved  in,  52,  53 
the  weak  point  of  the,  21 
Quince  wine,  preparation  of,  355,  356 


RACKS,  Ferguson's  improved,  321, 
322 

plain,  322 
Radical  vinegar,  18 
Raisin^,  preparation  of,  389 
"Rape,"  what  it  is,  162 
Raspberry-wine,  preparation  of,  365, 

366 

Raw  materials,  chemical  examination 
.    of,  and  control  of  the  operations  in 

a  vinegar  factory,  197-209 
Red-apple  wine,  preparation  of,  343 
liquor,   manufacture  of,   and  re- 
ceipts for,  272-274 
wood,  230 

Reichenbach's  method  of  destroying 
the  empyreumatic  bodies  in  crude 
calcium  acetate,  261 
Reservoirs,  location  of,  72 
Resinous  woods  for  filling  generators, 

65,  66 

Retorts,  dimensions  of,  221 
form  of  the,  220,  221 
horizontal,    illustrated    and    de- 
scribed, 225-227 
materials  for,  220 
movable,     illustrated     and     de- 
scribed, 223 
modification     of,    illustrated 

and  described,  223-225 
position  of,  221,  222 
vertical,  222-225 

Rhubarb-wine,  preparation  of,  367 
yield  of  wine  from  one  acre  of, 

367 
Ripening  of  fruits,  299-306 


River- water,  113,  114 

Rochester,   N.  Y.,  evaporating  busi 

ness  in  the  neighborhood  of,  401 
Rothe,  dimensions  of  retorts  recom- 
mended by,  221 

method    for   the    purification    of 
wood-vinegar     employed     by, 
239,  240 
products  obtained  from  birch  by, 

252 

Rousseau,  analyses  of  Brittany  ciders 
by,  330 


SACC,  method  of,  for  preserving 
animal  and  vegetable  substances, 
269,  270 

Saccharometer  percent.,  table  for  the 
reduction  of  specific  gravities  to, 
447-449 

Saccharometers,  197 
Saccharomyces  mesembryanthemum, 

27 

Salicylic  acid  as  a  corrective  for  the 
faulty  working  of  a  gene- 
rator, 129 

as  an  agent  for  checking  fer- 
mentation, 341 
use  of,  in  France  and  Ger- 
many, 341 

Saussure,  determination  of  the  chemi- 
cal constitution  of  alcohol  by, 
18 
determination  of  the  content  of 

ash  in  the  oak  by,  216 
Saving  of  the  apple  seeds,  398 
Saw-dust,    wood-vinegar   from,    252, 

253 

"Scalder,"  the,  382 
Scheele's  green,  286 
Schizomycetes,  26,  27 
Schnedermann's  method  of  preparing 

acetic  acid,  261,  262 
Sehtibler  and  Neuflf'er,  table  of  quan- 
tities  of  water  contained   in  wood 
by,  215 

Schulze's  ventilating  apparatus,  illus- 
trated and  described,  75-77 
Schiitzenbach,    introduction    of    the 
quick  process  of  manufacturing 
vinegar  by,  19 
the   quick   process  invented  by, 

52 

Schweinfurth  green,  286 
Sesquiacetate  of  iron,  276-278 
Sesquibasic  cupric  acetate,  283 


INDEX. 


473 


Sexbasic  acetate  of  lead,  296,  297 
Shavings,  acetic  acid  from,  218 
for  generators,  65-68 
nature  of  the  slimy  coating  upon 

the,  130 

removal  of  the  water  from,  and 
its  substitution  by  vinegar,  98 
saturation  with  vinegar  of,  artifi- 
cially dried,  98,  99 
use  of,  artificially  dried,  98 
Sherry-wine  from  cider,  348 
"  Sick"  wine,  what  it  is,  176 
Silver  acetate,  298 
Singer's  vinegar  generator,  illustrated 

and  described,   140-142 
"  Siphon-barrel,"  described  and  illus- 
trated, 88,  89 
"  Sliming"   of  the   generators,    129- 

131 

Sliming,  remedies  for,  131 
Sloe  or  wild-plum  wine,  369 
Slow  process,  51 

modifications  of,  51 
Small  fruits,  wine  from,  356-368 
Soda  solution,  normal  caustic,  206 
Sodium  acetate,  269,  270 

acetic  acid   from  258,   262- 

265 

apparatus  for  roasting,  illus- 
trated, 244 
crude,   preparation  of,   242- 

247 

crystallizing  vessels   for,  il- 
lustrated, 244,  245 
explosive  mixture  prepared 

with  the  use  of,  270 
preservation  of  animal  and 
vegetable   substances   by, 
269,  270 
pure,  preparation    of,    242- 

247 

Sorby,  experiments  on  wood  by,  217 
Sour  Dusseldorf  mustard,  426 

Kremser  must-mustard,  426 
Sparger,    described    and   illustrated, 

62-65 

Sparkling  cider,  329 
Specific  gravities,  table  for  the  reduc- 
tion of,    to  saccharometer  per 
cent.,  447-449 

gravity,  table  for  comparing  the 
per  cent,  of  sugar  with  the  per 
cent,  of  extract  and  the,  451 
Spirits  of  wine,  constitution  of,  114 

determination      of     vinegar 
from  dilute,  212,  213 


Spirits — 

table  for  the  determination  of  the 
true  strengths  of,  for  the  normal 
temperature  of  59°  F.,    439- 
443 
Spiritus  aeruginis,  18 

Veneris,  18 

Sprout,    S.    E.,    improved    Williams 
evaporator,  manufactured  by,  illus- 
trated and  described,  410-4*12 
Stahl  and  Westendorf,  18 
Starch,  conversion   of  cellulose  into, 

217 
preparation  of  vinegar  from,  154, 

155 

Starr,  Richard  T.,  on  canning  toma- 
toes, 380-385 
Statistics  of  fruit  in  the  U.  S.,  401, 

402 

Stein,  method  of,  for  preparing  neutral 
acetate    of    lead,     illustrated, 
288-291 
mode    of  increasing   the  boiling 

point  of  vinegar,  by.  255 
Still  for  the  distillation  of  wood-vine- 
gar, illustrated  and  described, 
237,  238 
for  the  rectification  of  acetic  acid, 

with  illustration,  260 
for    wood-spirit,    illustrated    and 

described,  248,  249 
Stoltze,  experiments  on  the  amount 
and  strength  of  the  products 
obtained  from  the  distillation 
of  several  varieties  of  wood,  by, 
250,  251 

methods   for  the   purification  of 
rectified  wood  vinegar,  recom- 
mended by,  239 
Stone-fruits,  jelly  from,  394 

wines  from,  368,  369 
Stoneware  jars,  objections  to,  376 
Strontium  acetate,  272 
Storck  &  Co.,  of  Asnieres,   France, 
process  for  the  manufacture  of  alu- 
minium acetate,  patented  by,  274 
Storing  of  vinegar,  146-148 
Stoves,  location  of,  in  the  workroom, 

69 

"  Stoves,"  what  is  meant  by,  161 
Strawberry-wine,  methods  of  prepar- 
ing, 360,  361 
Straw,    objection    to   the   use   of,   in 

laying  up  the  cheese,  336 
"Strengthening   weak-working    gen- 
erators," remedies  for,  126 


474 


INDEX. 


Succinic  acid,  formation  and  proper- 
ties of,  313,  314 
of,  in  vinous  fermenta- 
tion, 39 
Sugar  and  acid,  testing  the  must,  as 

to  its  content  of,  324-327 
beets,    preparation     of    vinegar 

from,  163 

calculation    of    the   quantity    of, 
which  has  to  be  added  to  the 
must,  326,  327 
determination  of,  197,  198 
from  wood,  217 
fruits  and  berries,  vinegar  from, 

163-166 

in  fruits,  derivation  of,  305 
of  lead,  287-295 
percentage  of,  in  different  varie- 
ties of  fruit,  306,  307 
proportion  of,  to  fruit,  391 
quantity  of,  for  jelly,  392 
syrup,    preparation    of,    in    can- 
neries, 379,  380 

table  for  comparing  the  per  cent, 
of,  with  per   cent,  of  extract 
and  the  specific  gravity,  451 
yield  of  alcohol  from,  1 95 
Sulphite  of  lime  for  checking  fermen- 
tation, 340 

Sulphuric  acid,  detection  of,  in  vine- 
gar, 210 

Sulphuring  of  vinegar,  152.  153 
Sulphurous  acid,  apparatus  for  the  de- 
velopment  of,    illustrated 
and  described,  135,  136 
detection  of,  in  vinegar,  2 1 1 
for  the  suppression  of  vine- 
gar eels,  134 

Summary    of    the   theoretical   condi- 
tions of  the  formation  of  vinegar, 
37,  38 
Sun-drying  apparatus,  illustrated  and 

described,  409,  410 
Sweden,  manufacture  of  verdigris  in,  ! 

285 

Sweet  cider,  preparation  of,  343,  344  j 
Kremser  must-mustard,  426 


IABLE  for  comparing  per  cent,  of 
sugar  with  per  cent,  of 
extract  and  the  specific 
gravity,  451 

the  different  aerometers 
with  Tralles's  alcoholo- 
meter, 436 


Table— 

for  comparison  of  the  scales  of 
Reaumur's,  Celsius's  and  Far- 
enheit's  thermometers,  454 
for  the  determination  of  the  true 
strengths  of  spirit  for  the  nor- 
mal temperature  of  59°  F., 

439-443 

of  the   true   volume    of  al- 
cholic  fluids  from  the  ap- 
parent volume  at  different 
temperatures,  444,  445 
for  the  preparation  of  whiskey  of 
various    strengths   from  spirits 
of  wine,  446 

for  the  reduction  of  specific  gravi- 
ties to  saccharometer  percent., 
447-449 

indicating  the  specific  gravity  of 
mixtures  of  alcohol  and  water, 
443 

of  comparative  synopsis  of  the 
aerometers  for  must  generally 
used,  450 

of  content  of  alcohol  required  in 

a  liquid  for  the  production 

of  vinegar  with  a  certain 

content  of  acetic  acid,  108 

of    sugar   and   free    acid  in 

fruits,  165 

of  proportion  between  per  cent. 

by  weight   and  by  volume   of 

alcoholic  fluids  at  59°  F.,  434 

of  the  theoretical  yield   of  acetic 

acid  from  alcohol,  107,  108 
showing  the  actual  content  of  al- 
cohol and  water  in  mixtures  of 
both  fluids  and  the  contraction 
which  takes  place  in  mixing, 
435 

to  Massonfour's  aerometer,  451 
to  Oechsle's  aerometer  for  must, 

451 

vinegars,  172,  173 

Tables  for  determining  the  content  of 
per  cent,  of  acetic  acid  in  a  vine- 
gar of  —  specific  gravity,  452,  453 
Tannin  in  plants  and  fruits,  311,  312 
test  for  in  the  juice  of  apples,  333 
Tar,     charcoal,     wood-vinegar,     and 

wood-spirit,  yield  of,  250-253 
Tarragon  vinegar,  172 

compound,  172 

Tartaric  acid,  decomposition  of,  193 
in   vinegar,    destruction    of, 
147 


INDEX. 


475 


Temperature  and  the  development  of 

the  vinegar  ferment,  33,  34 
best  for  the  formation  of  vinegar, 

34,  47 
in  the  interior  of  the  generators, 

117 

of  the  workroom,  47 
Terrace  system,  the,  described  and  il- 
lustrated, 82-87 
Terreil  and    Chateau,  purification  of  1 

wood-vinegar,  according  to,  239 
Testing  the  must  as  to  its  content  of 

sugar  and  acid,  324-327 
Tetrylene,  220 
Theoretical   explanations,   what  may 

be  learned  from,  46,  47 
yield,  definition  of,  44 

of  acetic  acid  from  alcohol, 

table  of,  107,  108 
yields  of  acetic  acid,  44-48 
Theory  of  the  formation  of  vinegar, 

21-27 

Thermometer,     maximum    electrical, 
described  and  illustrated,  71,  72 
minimum  electrical,  72 
necessity  of,  for  the  generator,  65 
Thermometers,  table  for  comparison 
of  the    scales    of  Reaumur's,  Cel- 
sius's, and  Fahrenheit's,  454 
Thomson,  R.  D.,  analysis  of  mother 

of  vinegar  by,  36 
Three-group  system,  87-90 
Tilting-trough,    described    and    illus- 
trated. 61,  62 

modification    of,    with   illus- 
tration, 87,  88 
Tin  acetate,  297 

cans,  linings  for,  377 

manufacture  of  in  the  United 

States  canneries,  378 
objection   to  soldering  inside 

of,  377 
size  of,  377 

detection  of,  in  vinegar,  212 
Titration,     determination     of    acetic 
acid  by,  with  illustration,  208,  209 
Todd,   S.   E.,  description  of    a  con- 
trivance for   making  cider  vinegar 
by,  167,  168 
Toilet  vinegars,  171 
Tomato   catchup,    various    modes    of 

preparing,  385-387 
wine,  preparation  of,  367,  368 
Tomatoes,  canned,  market  for,  384 
canning,  extent  of  the  business  of, 
385 


Tomatoes — 

canning  of,  380-385 

cultivation  of,  381 

pickling  of,  423 

scalding  of,  382 

skinning  and  packing  of,  382 
"Top   them   off,"    the 'meaning  of, 

382 

Torula  cerevisiae,  313 
Tralles's  alcoholometer,  table  for  com- 
paring   the    different     aerometers 
with,  436 
Tribasic  acetate  of  lead,  296 

cupric  acetate,  283 
Triplumbic  tetracetate,  296 
Turbidity  of  cider,  350 
"  Turning  bitter"  of  wine,  176 
Turning  black  of  cider,  350 
"Turning  sour"  of  wine,  176 
Tutti-frutti,  what  it  is,  392 


UNITED  STATES  Agricultural 
Department,  analyses  of 
cider  by,  331,  332 

apple-jelly  without  sugar  as 
mafle  in  the,  392,  39-3 

division  of  labor  in  the  can- 
neries of  the,  379 

export  of  evaporated  and 
dried  apples,  in  1888,  from, 
401,  402 

manufacture  of  tin-cans  in 
the  canneries  of  the,  379 

national  importance  of  can- 
ning fruits,  for  the,  374 

size  of  tin  cans  in  the,  377 
Uranium  acetate,  297 


VALP:NTINUS,  BASILIUS,  and 
the  distillation  of  vim-gar,  18 
Vapors,  condensation  of,  80 
Vauquelin   and    Fourcroy,   discovery 

by,  18 
Vegetable  mucilage  and  gum  in  fruits, 

310,  311 

sap,  composition  of,  215 
Vegetables,  preparation  ofr  for  evapo- 
rating, 417,  418 

preservation  of,  by  sodium  ace- 
tate, 270 

Ventilating   apparatus    according    to 
Bt-rsch,  illustrated,  77,  78 
Schulze's,  illustrated  and  de- 
scribed, 75-77 


476 


INDEX. 


Ventilating — 

contrivances,   special,   object   of, 

77 

Ventilation  and  condensation,   gene- 
rators with  constant,  77-80 
artificial,    of   the   vinegar  gene- 
rators, 73-80 

of  the  generators  from  above  to 
below,  objections  to,  with  illus- 
tration, 73-75 
Venus' s  vinegar,  18 
Verdigris,  acetic  acid  from,  18 
adulterations  of,  285,  286 
crystallized,  280-283 

glacial  acetic  acid  from,  256 
manufacture  of  in  France,  Eng- 
land,  Germany,  and  Sweden, 
284,  285 
varieties  of,  283 

Vidal-Malligaud's  ebullioscopc,  illus- 
trated and  described,  202,  203 
Vinaigre  des  quatre  voleurs,  171 
Vincent,    apparatus  for  cooling   gas, 
by,  with  illustration,  228,  229 
dimensions     of    retorts,    recom- 
mended by,  221 

utilization  of  the  mother  lye,  ac- 
cording to,  247 
yield  of  salable  methyl  alcohol, 

according  to,  252 

Vinegar,  actual  fabrication  of,  accord- 
ing to  the  old  method,  1 1  9 
apparatus,  automatic,  80-96 
bacteria,  fluids  especially  suitable 
for   the    nourishment    of, 
27 
origin    and   distribution   of, 

27 

rapid  augmentation  of,  29 
best  temperature  for  the  forma- 
tion of,  34 

"  Vinegar  boiling,"  1  75 
Vinegar,  coloring  of,  153,  154 

conditions  on  which  the  fabrica- 
tion of  high-graded   or  weak, 
depends,  106,  107 
determination  of  the  derivation 

of  a,  212-214 
difference   in   the   properties  of, 

51,  52 

disturbing  influences  in  the  fabri- 
cation of,  125-139 
eels,  smells  caused  by,  130 
essence,  the    manufacture   of,    a 

well-paying  industry,  20 
what  it  is,  20~  254 


Vinegar — 

examination  of,  as  to  the  pres- 
ejice  of  foreign  acids  and  of 
metals,  as  well  as  to  its  deri- 
vation, 209-214 

fabrication  of,  from  various  ma- 
terials, 154-168 
of,  with  the  assistance  of  pla- 
tinum black,  143,  144 
factories,  losses  in,  48 
factory,  arrangement  of  a,  68-72 
principal   work   to   be    per- 
formed in,  80 

ferment,  or  vinegar- veast,  23 
the,  27-30 
the,    and    its   conditions    of 

life,  27-38 
the  need  of  free  oxygen  of, 

29,  30 

-field,  what  constitutes  a,  180 
filtration  of  the,  150-152 
fining  of,  153 
for  domestic  use,  164 
for  seasoning  food,  255 
for  the  preservation  of  fruit,  etc., 

254,  255 

from  apple-pomace,  168 
from   sugar,    fruits,   and  berries, 

163-166 

further  treatment  of.  freshly- pre- 
pared, 144-154 
heating  the,  with  illustration,  148, 

149 
how  drawn  off,  with  illustration, 

145,  146 

improvement  in  the  odor  of,  145 
increase  of  the  boiling  point  of, 

255 
of  the  content  of  acetic  acid 

in,  254 

limit  of  acetic  acid  in,  106 
manufacture   of,   from  malt  and 

grain,  156-163 

method  of  the  fabrication  of,  in 
apparatus  of  special  construc- 
tion, 139-144 

methods  of  fabrication  of,  50-52 
necessity  of  progress  in  the  manu- 
facture of,  19 

odor  of  freshly- prepared,  144 
of —  specific   gravity,    tables  for 
determining  the  content  of  per 
cent,  of  acetic  acid  in,  452,  453 
ordinary,  what  it  is,  1  7 
part  taken  by  the  vinegar  eels  in 
the  fabrication  of,  133 


INDEX. 


477 


Vinegar — 

preparation  of,  according  to  the 

group-system,  121,  122 
of,  according  to  the  group- 
system,   in   factories  with 
automatic     arrangements, 
123-125 
of,  with  a  high  percentage 

of  acetic  acid,  119,  120 
production  of  very  strong,  56 
quantities  of,  required  for  com- 
plete acidulation,  96 
quantity  of,  for  alcoholic  liquid, 

107 
quick  process  of  fabrication  of, 

52-68 

reasons  why  the  manufacture  of, 
from    alcohol,     becomes    con- 
stantly more  difficult,  19,  20 
receipts  by  Cadet-Gassicourt,  for, 

164 

role  of,  in  alcoholic  liquid,  104 
specialties,   preparation  of,   168- 

175 

spiced,  preparation  of,  421 
storing  of,  146-148 
sulphuring  of,  152,  153 
summary  of  the  fluids  suitable  for 

the  preparation  of,  37 
of  the  theoretical  conditions 
of  the  formation    of,   37, 
38 

theory  of  the  formation  of,  21-27 
Vinous  fermentation,   chief  products 

of,  313 
processes  taking  place  in,  38, 

39 
Violet,  determination  of  the  content 

of  ash  in  the  cherry  tree,  by,  216 
Viscosity    or    greasy    appearance    of 

cider,  349,  350 

Volckel,  '  method  of,  for  preparing 
neutral  acetate  of  lead, 
287 

of    obtaining    acetic   acid 
from    calcium    acetate, 
of,  258-261 
Volumetric  analyses,  204 


WAGMANN,  process  of  manufac- 
turing vinegar,  by,  52 
Walnut  catchup,  387 
Walnuts,  pickling  of,  423 
Water  and  acetic  acid,  specific  gravity 
of  mixtures  of,  42,  43 


Water— 

and  alcohol,  table  showing  the 
actual  content  of,  in  mixtures 
of  both  fluids,  and  the  contrac- 
tion which  takes  place  in  mix- 
ing, 435 

quantity  of,  eliminated  from 
evaporated  fruit,  401 

separation  of  gypsum  and  calcium 
carbonate  from,  113 

suitable  and  unsuitable  for  the 
fabrication  of  vinegar,  113,  114 

table  indicating  the  specific  grav- 
ity of  mixtures  of  alcohol  and, 
433 

Weinessig-Siederei,  180 
Well-water,   113 
Westendorf  and  Stahl,  18 
Whiskey-mashes,   fermented,   as  ma- 
terial for  vinegar,  156 

table  for  the  preparation  of,  from 

spirits  of  wine,  446 
White  lead,  French  method  of  manu- 
facturing, 295 

wood  shavings  for  filling  genera- 
tors, 65 

Williams,  experiments  on  wood   by, 
217 

improved  evaporator,  illustrated 

and  described,  410-412 
Willson's    telegraph  wine    and    cider 
mill,  illustrated  and  described,  322, 
323 
Wine,  acetic  acid  in,  177 

acetous  degeneration  of,  177 

alkaloid  in,  315 

apricot,  369 

attacked  by  acetous  degeneration, 
uses  of,  177,  1 78 

behavior  of,  104,  105 

blackberry,  366 

change  of  the  bouquet  substances 
of,"  179 

cherry,  368 

composition  of,  179 

currant,  358-360 

definition  of,  299 

drinkable,  profitable  use  of,  for 
vinegar,  176 

elderberry,  366,  367 

formation  of  vinegar  ferment 
upon,  with  illustration,  28,  29 

glycerin  in,  314 

gooseberry,  361-363 

infection  of,  with  vinegar  ferment, 
186 


478 


INDEX. 


Wine— 

juniperberry,  367 
lactic  acid  degeneration  of,  176 
mill,   Willson's   telegraph,    illus- 
trated and  described,  322,  323 
morello,  369 
mulberry,  366 
mustard,  425,  426 
parsnip,  368 

Pasteur's  researches  on  the  dis- 
eased alteration  of,  26 
peach,  369 

phenomena  appearing  in  the  con- 
version of,  into  vinegar,  184 
plum,  369 
quince,  355,  356 
raspberry,  365,  366 
red,  from  cider,   preparation  of, 

343 

remedies  for   acetous    degenera- 
tion of,  177 
rhubarb,  367 

"setting  off,"  with  vinegar  fer- 
ment, 184 
"sick,"  176 
sloe,  369 

strawberry,  360,  361 
tannin  in,"  311,  312 
tomato,  367,  368 
turning  bitter  of,  176 

sour  of,  176 

vinegar,  apparatus  for,  described 
and  illustrated,  188,  189 
appearance    of     mother    of 
vinegar  in  the  manufacture 
of,  187 

boiling  of,  180 
bottling  of,  192 
composition  of,  179 
constituents  of,  175 
control  of  the  process  of  fab- 
rication of,  191 
determination  of,  213,  214 
difficulties  in  the  preparation 

of,  187,  188 

execution  of  Bersch's  process 
on  a  commercial  scale, 
188-193 

fabrication  of,  175-197 
heating  of,  193 
method  of  the  fabrication  of, 
according  to  Bersch,  185- 
188 

modern  French  method  o 
preparing,  182-185 


Wine- vinegar — 

old  French  method  of  manu- 
facturing, 180-182 
Pasteur's  researches  on   the 

formation  of,  26 
preparation  of,  for  household 
purposes,  194,  195 

from  lees,  193-197 
storing  of,  1 92 
what    constitutes   the   supe- 
riority of,  178,  179 
wines  best  adapted  for,  188 
young,  heating  of,  1 84 

treatment  of,  for  the  prepa- 
ration of  vinegar,  178 
Wines,  best  adapted  for  vinegar,  188 

from  stone-fruits,  368,  369 
"  Wiping  table,"  383 
Wood,  action  of  various  acids  upon, 

218 

air-dry,  composition  of,  216 
definition  of,  215 
drying  of,  229,  230 
artificially  dried,  composition  of, 

216 

changes  of,  by  heating,  217 
composition  of,  215 
content  of  ash  in,  216 
decomposition  of,  216-218 

at    a    higher     temperature, 

219,  220 

distillation  of,  220-230 
facts  observed  in  the  distillation 

of,  220 
formation  of  an  acid  body  in  the 

dry  distillation  of,  18 
hard,  percentage  of  acetic  anhy- 
dride obtained  by  Gillot  from, 
251 

inorganic  constituents  of,  215 
main  cause  of  decomposition  of, 

219 
most  suitable  varieties  for  acetic 

acid,  229 
percentage  of  water  in  air-dried, 

98 

preservation  of,  216,  217 
products  from,  by  heating  in  re- 
torts,  230 

products  given  off  during  the  dis- 
tillation of,  220 
products     obtained    by    Assmus 

from,  252 

quantity  of  water  contained  in, 
215 


INDEX. 


479 


Wood- 
red,  230 

removal  of  bark  from,  229 
roasted,  230 
spirit  (methyl  alcohol)  234 

charcoal,  wood-vinegar,  and 

tar,  yield  of,  250-253 
crude,  composition  of,  247 
examination  of  commercial, 

249,  250 
manner  of  obtaining,    247- 

250 

rectified,  purification  of,  249 
still  for,   illustrated  and  de- 
scribed, 248,  249 
uses  of,  249 

Stoltze's  experiments  on  the 
amount  and  strength  of  the 
products  obtained  from  the  dis- 
tillation of  several  varieties  of, 
250,  251 

sugar  and  alcohol  from,  217 
vinegar,  232,  233 

acids  occurring  in,  246,  247 
determination  of  the  strength 

of,  235-237 

from  sawdust,  252,  253 
manufacture  of,  215-253 
properties    and   constituents 

of,  232,  233 

still   for   the   distillation  of, 
illustrated  and   described, 
237,  238 
wood-spirit,    charcoal,     and 

tar,  yield  of,  250-253 
working  up  the,  237-241 


Wood- 
yield  of  charcoal  from  different 

varieties  of,  231 
Woods,  table  of  specific  gravity  of, 

216 

Woody  fibre,  composition  of,  215 
Working,   causes    of  deviations  from 

the  regular  order  of,  1 1 5 
up  the  wood- vinegar,  237-241 
Workroom,  construction  of  the  floor 

of  the,  69 

heating  of  the,  69-72 
maintenance  of  a  uniform   tem- 
perature in  the,  68,  69 
temperature  of  the,  47,  191 
ventilation  in  the,  68,  69 


YEAST,    compressed,    preparation 
of,  160 

setting  the  mash  with,  160 
what  it  is,  312,  313 
Yield,  calculation  of  the  theoretical, 
of  acetic  acid  from  alcohol,  44, 

45 

of  charcoal,  wood-vinegar,  and 
wood-spirit,  as  well  as  of  tar, 
250-253 

Yields  of  acetic  acid  obtained  in  prac- 
tice. 48,  49 

theoretical  and  practical,  defini- 
tion of,  44 


acetate,  279 


UITI7BRSIT7 


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BLINN. — A  Practical  Workshop  Companion  for  Tin,  Sheet- 
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BOOTH.— Marble  Worker's  Manual: 

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BOOTH  and  MORFIT.— The  Encyclopaedia  of  Chemistry, 

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BRANNT. — A    Practical   Treatise  on  Animal  and  Vegetable 

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BRANNT. — A  Practical  Treatise  on  the  Manufacture  of  Soap 

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BRANNT.— A  Practical  Treatise  on  the  Raw  Materials  and  the 
Distillation  and  Rectification  of  Alcohol,  and  the  Prepara- 
tion of  Alcoholic  Liquors,  Liqueurs,  Cordials,  Bitters,  etc.  : 
Edited  chiefly  from  the  German  of  Dr.  K.  Stammer,  Dr.  F.  Eisner, 
and  E.  Schubert.     By  WM.  T.  BRANNT.     Illustrated  by  thirty-one 
engravings.     I2mo. 


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BRANNT— WAHL.— The  Techno- Chemical  Receipt  Book: 

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portant,  and  most  useful  discoveries  in  Chemical  Technology,  an« 
their  Practical  Application  in  the  Arts  and  the  Industries.  Editec 
chiefly  from  the  German  of  Drs.  Winckler,  Eisner,  Heintze,  Mier 
zinski,  Jacobsen,  Roller,  and  Heinzerling,  with  additions  by  WM.  1. 
BRANNT  and  WM.  H.  WAHL,  PH.  D.  Illustrated  by  78  engravings. 
:2mo.  495  pages  .  .  .  .  $2.09 

BROWN. — Five  Hundred  and  Seven  Mechanical  Movements. 
Embracing  all  those  which  are  most  important  in  Dynamics,  Hy- 
draulics, Hydrostatics,  Pneumatics,  Steam-Engines,  Mill  and  other 
Gearing,  Presses,  Horology  and  Miscellaneous  Machinery;  and  in 
eluding  many  movements  never  before  published,  and  several  of 
which  have  only  recently  come  into  use.  By  HENRY  T.  BROWN 
I2mo .  .  .  $I.OG 

BUCKMASTER.— The  Elements  of  Mechanical  Physics  : 
By  J.   C.   BUCKMASTER.       Illustrated    with    numerous   engravings. 
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BULLOCK.— The  American  Cottage  Builder  : 

A  Series  of  Designs,  Plans  and  Specifications,  from  $200  to  $20,000, 
for  Homes  for  the  People ;  together  with  Warming,  Ventilation, 
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BULLOCK. — The  Rudiments  of  Architecture  and  Building : 
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BURGH. — Practical    Rules    for    the   Proportions   of     Modern 

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BYLES. — Sophisms    of     Free    Trade    and    Popular    Political 

Economy  Examined. 

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Pleas).  From  the  Ninth  English  Edition,  as  published  by  ihe 
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BOWMAN.— The  Structure  of  the  Wool  Fibre  in  its  Relation 

to  the  Use  of  Wool  for  Technical  Purposes : 
Being  the  substance,  with  additions,  of  Five  Lectures,  delivered  at 
the  request  of  the  Council,  to  the  members  of  the  Bradford  Technical 
College,  and  the  Society  of  Dyers  and  Colorists.  By  F.  H.  Bow 
MAN,  D.  Sc.,  F.  R.  S.  E.,  F.  L.  S.  Illustrated  by  32  engravinrs. 
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BYRNE.— Hand-Book  for  the  Artisan,  Mechanic,  and  Engi- 
neer: 

Comprising  the  Grinding  and  Sharpening  of  Cutting  Tools,  Abis-  ^e 
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BYRNE.— Pocket-Book  for  Railroad  and  Civil  Engineers: 
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BYRNE.— Tne  Practical  Metal- Worker's  Assistant:  * 

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and  Alloys  ;  Forging  of  Iron  and  Steel ;  Hardening  and  Tempering; 
Melting  and  Mixing;  Casting  and  Founding  ;  Works  in  Sheet  Metal; 
the  Processes  Dependent  on  the  Ductility  of  the  Metals;  Soldering; 
and  the  most  Improved  Processes  and  Tools  employed  by  Metal- 
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Manufacturing  Processes;  collected  from  Original  Sources,  and  from 
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BYRNE.— The  Practical  Model  Calculator: 

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600  pages £3.00 

CABINET  MAKER'S  ALBUM  OF  FURNITURE; 

Comprising  a  Collection  of  Designs  for  various  Styles  of  Furniture. 
Illustrated  by  Forty-eight  Large  and  Beautifully  Engraved  Plates. 
Oblong,  8vo.  ........  £2.00 

CALLINGHAM.— Sign  Writing  and  Glass  Embossing: 

A  Complete  Practical  Illustrated  Manual  of  the  Art.  By  JAMES 
CALLINGHAM.  121110 $i  50 

CAMPIN. — A  Practical  Treatise  on  Mechanical  Engineering: 
Comprising  Metallurgy,  Moulding,  Casting,  Forging,  Tools,  Work, 
shop  Machinery,  Mechanical  Manipulation,  Manufacture  of  Steam- 
Engines,  etc.  With  an  Appendix  on  the  Analysis  of  Iron  and  Iron 
Ores.  By  FP  ANCIS  CAMPIN,  C.  E.  To  which  are  added,  Observations 
on  the  Construction  of  Steam  Boilers,  and  Remarks  upon  Furnaces 
used  for  Smoke  Prevention ;  with  a  Chapter  on  Explosions.  By  R. 
ARMSTRONG,  C.  E.,  and  JOHN  BOURNE.  Rules  for  Calculating  th« 
Change  Wheels  for  Screws  on  a  Turning  Lathe,  and  for  a  \Vheel«j 
cutting  Machine.  By  J.  LA  NICCA.  Management  of  Steel,  Includ- 
ing Forging.  Hardening,  Tempering,  Annealing,  Shrinking  and 
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CAREY.— A  Memoir  of  Henry  C.  Carey. 
By  DR.  W'M.  ELDER,    With  a  portrait.     8vo.,  cloth         .        .        75 

CAREY.— The  Works  of  Henry  C.  Carey  : 

Harmony  of  Interests  :  Agricultural,  Manufacturing  and  Commer- 
cial. 8vo.  ...  .  #1.25 
Manual  of  Social  Science.  Condensed  from  Carey's  "  Principles 
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Miscellaneous  Works.  With  a  Portrait.  2  vols.  8vo.  $10.00 

Past,  Present  and  Future.     8vo $2.50 

Principles  of  Social  Science.  3  volumes,  8vo.  .  .  $7.50 
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The  Unity  of  Law :  As  Exhibited  in  the  Relations  of  Physical, 
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CLARK. — Tramways,  their  Construction  and  Working : 

Embracing  a  Comprehensive  History  of  the  System.  With  an  ex- 
haustive analysis  of  the  various  modes  of  traction,  including  horse- 
power, steam,  heated  water  and  compressed  air;  a  description  of  the 
varieties  of  Rolling  stock,  and  ample  details  of  cost  and  working  ex- 
penses. By  D.  KINNEAR  CLARK.  Illustrated  by  over  200  wood 
engravings,  and  thirteen  folding  plntes.  2  vols.  8vo.  .  $12.50 
'COLBURN. — The  Locomotive  Engine: 

Including  a  Description  of  its  Structure,  Rules  for  Estimating  its 
Capabilities,  and  Practical  Observations  on  its  Construction  and  Man- 
agement. By  ZERAH  COLBURN.  Illustrated.  121110.  .  $1.00 

COLLENS. — The  Eden  of  Labor;  or,  the  Christian  Utopia. 
By  T.  WHARTON  COLLENS,  author  of  "  Humanics,"    "The  Historj 
of  Charity,"  etc.     I2mo.     Paper  cover,  $1.00;  Cloth          .         $1.25 

COOLEY. — A  Complete  Practical  Treatise  on  Perfumery : 

Being  a  Hand-book  of  Perfumes,  Cosmetics  and  other  Toilet  Articles, 
With  a  Comprehensive  Collection  of  Formulae.  By  ARNOLD  J 
COOLEY.  i2mo.  ........  $i-5& 

COOPER.— A  Treatise  on  the  use  of  Belting  for  rtie  Trans^ 

mission  of  Power. 

With  numerous  illustrations  of  approved  and  actual  methods  of  ar- 
ranging Main  Driving  and  Quarter  Twist  Belts,  and  of  Relt  Fasten 
ings.  Examples  and  Rules  in  great  number  for  exhibiting  and  cal- 
culating the  size  and  driving  power  of  Belts.  Plain,  Particular  and 
Practical  Directions  for  the  Treatment,  Care  and  Management  of 
Belts.  Descriptions  of  many  varieties  of  Beltings,  together  witn 
chapters  on  the  Transmission  of  Power  by  Ropes ;  by  Iron  and 
Wood  Frictional  Gearing;  on  the  Strength  of  Belting  Leather;  and 
on  the  Experimental  Investigations  of  Morin,  Briggs,  and  others.  By 
JOHN  H.  COOPER,  M.  E.  8vo #3.50 

CRAIK.— The  Practical  American  Millwright  and  M^ler. 

By  DAVID  CRAIK,  Millwright.  Illustrated  by  numerous  wood  en- 
gravings and  two  folding  plates.  8vo.  .  $3-5O 


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CREW.—  A  Practical  Treatise  on  Petroleum  : 

Comprising  its  Origin,  Geology,  Geographical  Distribution,  History, 
Chemistry,  Mining,  Technology,  Uses  and  Transportation.  Together 
with  a  Description  of  Gas  Wells,  the  Application  of  Gas  as  Fuel,  etc. 
By  BENJAMIN  J.  CREW.  With  an  Appendix  on  the  Product  'and 
Exhaustion  of  the  Oil  Regions,  and  the  Geology  of  Natural  Gas  in 
Pennsylvania  and  New  York.  By  CHARLES  A.  ASHBURNER,  M.  S 
Geologist  in  Charge  Pennsylvania  Survey,  Philadelphia.  Illustrated 
by  70  engravings.  8vo.  508  pages  .... 


vCROSS.—  The  Cotton  Yarn  Spinner  : 

Showing  how  the  Preparation  should  be  arranged  for  Different 
Counts  of  Yarns  by  a  System  more  uniform  than  has  hitherto  been 
practiced;  by  having  a  Standard  Schedule  from  which  we  make  all 
our  Changes.  By  RICHARD  CROSS.  122  pp.  i2mo.  .  75 

CRISTIANI.  —  A  Technical  Treatise  on  Soap  and  Candles: 
With  a   Glance  at  the   Industry  of  Fats  and  Oils.     By  R.  S.  CRIS 
TIANI,  Chemist.     Author  of  "Perfumery  and  Kindred  Arts."      Illu>- 
trated  by  176  engravings.     581  pages,  8vo.         .         .         .       $15.00 

CRISTIANI.  —  Perfumery  and  Kindred  Arts  : 

A  Comprehensive  Treatise  on  Perfumery,  containing  a  History  of 
Perfumes  from  the  remotest  ages  to  the  present  time.  A  complete  de- 
tailed description  of  the  various  Materials  and  Apparatus  used  in  the 
Perfumer's  Art,  with  thorough  Practical  Instruction  and  careful  For- 
mulae, and  advice  for  the  fabrication  of  all  known  preparations  of 
the  day.  By  R.  S.  CRISTIANI,  Consulting  Chemist  and  Perfumer, 
Philadelphia.  8vo.  .  ......  $10.00 

COAL  AND  METAL  MINERS'  POCKET  BOOK: 

Of  Principles,  Rules,  Formulae,  and  Tables,  Specially  Compiled 
and  Prepared  for  the  Convenient  Use  of  Mine  Officials,  Mining  En- 
gineers, and  Students  preparing  themselves  for  Certificates  of  Compe* 
tency  as  Mine  Inspectors  or  Mine  Foremen.  Revised  and  Enlarged 
edition.  Illustrated,  565  pages,  small  I2mo.,  cloth  .  $2.00 
Pocket  book  form,  flexible  leather  with  flap  .  .  $2.75 

DAVIDSON.  —  A  Practical  Manual  of  House  Painting,  Grain- 

ing,  Marbling,  and  Sign-  Writing: 

Containing  full  information  on  the  processes  of  House  Painting  in 
Oil  and  Distemper,  the  Formation  of  Letters  and  Practice  of  Sign- 
Writing,  the  Principles  of  Decorative  Art,  a  Course  of  Elementary 
Drawing  for  House  Painters,  Writers,  etc.,  and  a  Collection  of  Useful 
Receipts.  With  nine.  colored  illustrations  of  Woods  and  Marblesi 
and  numerous  wood  engravings.  By  ELLIS  A.  DAVIDSON.  I2mo. 

#3-00 

DAVIES.  —  A   Treatise   on    Earthy  and   Other   Minerals    and 

Mining  : 

By  D.  C.  DAVIES,  F.  G.  S.,  Mining  Engineer,  etc.  Illustrated  bj 
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DAVIBS. — A  Treatise  on  Metalliferous  Minerals  and  Mining? 
By  D.  C.  DAVIES,  F.  G.  S.,  Mining  Engineer,  Examiner  of  Mines, 
Quarries  and  Collieries.    Illustrated  by  148  engravings  of  Geological 
Formations,    Mining   Operations   and   Machinery,    drawn    from    the 
practice  of  all  parts  of  the  world.    2d  Edition,  I2mo.,  450  pages  $5.00 

DAVIES. — A  Treatise  on  Slate  and  Slate  Quarrying: 

Scientific,  Practical  and  Commercial.  By  D.  C.  DAVIES,  F.  G.  S., 
Mining  Engineer,  etc.  With  numerous  illustrations  and  folding 
plate*.  larao $2.00 

DAVIS. — A  Treatise  on  Steam-Boiler  Incrustation  and  Meth- 
ods for  Preventing  Corrosion  and  the  Formation  of  Scale  : 
By  CHARLES  T.  DAVIS.     Illustrated  by  65  engravings.     8vo.    $1.50 

DAVIS. — The  Manufacture  of  Paper  : 

Being  a  Description  of  the  various  Processes  for  the  Fabrication, 
Coloring  and  Finishing  of  every  kind  of  Paper,  Including  the  Dif- 
ferent Raw  Materials  and  the  Methods  for  Determining  their  Values, 
the  Tools,  Machines  and  Practical  Details  connected  with  an  intelli- 
gent and  a  profitable  prosecution  of  the  art,  with  special  reference  to 
the  best  American  Practice.  To  which  are  added  a  History  of  Pa- 
per, complete  Lists  of  Paper-Making  Materials,  List  of  American 
Machines,  Tools  and  Processes  used  in  treating  the  Raw  Materials, 
and  in  Making,  Coloring  and  Finishing  Paper.  By  CHARLES  T. 
DAVIS.  Illustrated  by  156  engravings.  608  pages,  8vo.  $6.00 

DAVIS.— The  Manufacture  of  Leather: 

Being  a  description  of  all  of  tl  Processes  for  the  Tanning,  Tawing, 
Currying,  Finishing  and  Dyeing  of  every  kind  of  Leather ;  including 
the  various  Raw  Materials  and  the  Methods  for  Determining  their 
Values;  the  Tools,  Machines,  and  all  Details  of  Importance  con- 
nected with  an  Intelligent  an-d  Profitable  Prosecution  of  the  Art,  with 
Special  Reference  to  the  Best  American  Practice.  To  which  are 
added  Complete  Lists  of  all  American  Patents  for  Materials,  Pro- 
cesses, Tools,  and  Machines  for  Tanning,  Currying,  etc.  By  CHARLES 
THOMAS  DAVIS.  Illustrated  by  302  engravings  and  12  Samples  of 
Dyed  Leathers.  One  vol.,  8vo.,  824  pages  .  .  .  $10.00 

DAWIDOWSKY— BRANNT.— A  Practical  Treatise  on  the 
Raw  Materials  and  Fabrication  of  Glue,  Gelatine,  Gelatine 
Veneers  and  Foils,  Isinglass,  Cements,  Pastes,  Mucilages, 
etc.: 

Based  upon  Actual  Experience.  By  F.  DAWIDOWSKY,  Technical 
Chemist.  Translated  from  the  German,  with  extensive  additions, 
including  a  description  of  the  most  Recent  American  Processe>,  by 
WILLIAM  T.  BRANNT,  Graduate  of  the  Royal  Agricultural  College 
of  Eldena,  Prussia.  35  Engravings.  I2mo.  .  .  .  $2.50 

DE  GRAFF.— The  Geometrical  Stair-Builders'  Guide : 

Being  a  Plain  Practical  System  of  Hand-Railing,  embracing  all  its 
necessary  Details,  and  Geometrically  Illustrated  by  twenty-two  Steel 
Engravings ;  together  with  the  use  of  the  most  approved  principle* 
of  Practical  Geometry.  By  SIMON  DE  GRAFF,  Architect.  +to. 


HENRY   CAREY    BAIRD   &   CO.'S   CATALOGUE.        n 


DE  KONINCK—  DIETZ.—  A  Practical  Manual  of  Chemical 
Analysis  and  Assaying  : 

As  applied  to  the  Manufacture  of  Iron  from  its  Ores,  and  to  Cast  Iron, 
Wrought  Iron,  and  Steel,  as  found  in  Commerce.  By  L.  L.  De 
KONINCK,  Dr.  Sc.,  and  E.  DIETZ,  Engineer.  Edited  with  Notes,  by 
ROBERT  MALLET,  F.  R.  S.,  F.  S.  G.,  M.  I.  C.  E.,  etc.  American 
Edition,  Edited  with  Notes  and  an  Appendix  on  Iron  Ores,  by  A.  A. 
FESQUET,  Chemist  and  Engineer.  I2mo.  .  .  .  $1.50 

DUNCAN.—  Practical  Surveyor's  Guide: 

Containing  the  necessary  information  to  make  any  person  of  corm 
mon  capacity,  a  finished  land  surveyor  without  the  aid  of  a  tencher 
By  ANDREW  DUNCAN.  Revised.  72  engravings,  214  pp.  I2mo.  $1.50 

DUPLAIS.  —  A  Treatise  on  the   Manufacture  and  Distillation 

of  Alcoholic  Liquors  : 

Comprising  Accurate  and  Complete  Details  in  Regard  to  Alcohol 
from  Wine,  Molasses,  Beets,  Grain,  Rice,  Potatoes,  Sorghum,  Aspho 
del,  Fruits,  etc.;  with  the  Distillation  and  Rectification  of  Brandy. 
Whiskey,  Rum,  Gin,  Swiss  Absinthe,  etc.,  the  Preparation  of  Aro- 
matic Waters,  Volatile  Oils  or  Essences,  Sugars,  Syrups,  Aromatic 
Tinctures,  Liqueurs,  Cordial  Wines,  Effervescing  Wines,  etc.,  the 
Ageing  of  Brandy  and  the  improvement  of  Spirits,  with  Copious 
Directions  and  Tables  for  Testing  and  Reducing  Spirituous  Liquors, 
etc.,  etc.  Translated  and  Edited  from  the  French  of  MM.  DuPl.AiS, 
Aine  et  Jeune.  By  M.  McKENNiE,  M.  D.  To  which  are  added  the 
United  States  Internal  Revenue  Regulations  for  the  Assessment  and 
Collection  of  Taxes  on  Distilled  Spirits.  Illustrated  by  fourteen 
folding  plates  and  several  wood  engravings.  743  pp.  8vo.  $10  oo 
tJSSAUCE.  —  Practical  Treatise  on  the  Fabrication  of  Matches, 

Gun  Cotton,  and  Fulminating  Powder. 
By  Professor  H.  DUSSAUCE.     I2mo.          .         .         .         .         $3  oo 

r.YER  AND  COLOR-MAKER'S  COMPANION: 

Containing  upwards  of  two  hundred  Receipts  for  making  Colors,  on 
the  most  approved  principles,  for  all  the  various  styles  and  fabrics  now 
in  existence;  with  the  Scouring  Process,  and  plain  Directions  for 
Preparing,  Washing-off,  and  Finishing  the  Goods.  I2mo.  $1.00 

EDWARDS.  —  A  Catechism  of  the  Marine  Steam-Engine, 

*  For  the  use  of  Engineers,  Firemen,  and  Mechanics.  A  Practical 
Work  for  Practical  Men.  By  EMORY  EDWARDS,  Mechanical  Engi- 
neer. Illustrated  by  sixty-three  Engravings,  including  examples  of 
the  most  modern  Engines.  Third  edition,  thoroughly  revised,  with 
much  additional  matter.  12  mo.  414  pages  .  .  .  $2  oo 

EDWARDS.  —  Modern  American  Locomotive  Engines, 
Their  Design,  Construction  and  Management.     By  EMORY  EDWARD*. 
Illustrated  I2mo  ......... 


EDWARDS.—  The  American  Steam  Engineer: 

Theoretical  and  Practical,  with  examples  of  the  latest  and  most  ap- 
proved American  practice  in  the  design  and  construction  of  Steam 
Engines  and  Boilers.  For  the  use  of  engineers,  machinists,  boiler- 
pikers,  and  engineering  students.  By  EMORY  EDWARDS.  Fully 
illustrated,  419  pages.  121110.  •  .  .  •  • 


12         HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD  &  CO.'S  CATALOGUE. 

EDWARDS. — Modern  American  Marine  Engines,  Boilers,  aitt 
Screw  Propellers, 

Their  Design  and  Construction.  Showing  the  Present  Practice  of 
the  most  Eminent  Engineers  and  Marine  Engine  Builders  in  the 
United  States.  Illustrated  by  30  large  and  elaborate  plates.  4*0.  $5.00 
EDWARDS. — The  Practical  Steam  Engineer's  Guide 
In  the  Design,  Construction,  and  Management  of  American  Stationary, 
Portable,  and  Steam  Fire- Engines,  Steam  Pumps,  Boilers,  Injector^ 
Governors,  Indicators,  Pistons  and  Rings,  Safety  Valves  and  Steam 
Gauges.  For  the  use  of  Engineers,  Firemen,  and  Steam  Users.  By 
EMORY  EDWARDS.  Illustrated  by  119  engravings.  420  pages. 

t      1 21110 $2    50 

EISSLER:— The  Metallurgy  of  Gold  : 

A  Practical  Treatise  on  the  Metallurgical  Treatment  of  Gold-Bear- 
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With  132  Illustrations.  I2ino.  .  .  .  .  .  $3.50 

EISSLER. — The  Metallurgy  of  Silver  : 

A  Practical  Treatise  on  the  Amalgamation,  Roasting,  and  Lixiviation 
of  Silver  Ores,  including  the  Assaying,  Melting,  and  Refining  of 
Silver  Bullion.  By  M.  EISSLER.  124  Illustrations.  336  pp. 
I2mo $4.25 

ELDER. — Conversations  on  the  Principal  Subjects  of  Political 

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By  DR.  WILLIAM  ELDER.     8vo.       .....        $2.50 

ELDER. — Questions  of  the  Day, 

Economic  and  Social.     By  DR.  WILLIAM  ELDER.     8vo.     .      $3.00 

ERNI. — Mineralogy  Simplified. 

Easy  Methods  of  Determining  and  Classifying  Minerals,  including 
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based  on  Professor  von  Kobell's  Tables  for  the  Determination  of 
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FAIRBAIRN.— The  Principles  of  Mechanism  and  Machinery 

of  Transmission  • 

Comprising  the  Principles  of  Mechanism,  Wheels,  and  Pullevs, 
Strength  and  Proportions  of  Shafts,  Coupling  of  Shafts,  and  Engag- 
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C.  E.  Beautifully  illustrated  by  over  150  wood-cuts.  In  one 
volume.  I2mo $2.50 

FLEMING. — Narrow  Gauge  Railways  in  America. 

A  Sketch  of  their  Rise,  Progress,  and  Success.  Valuable  Statistics 
as  to  Grades,  Curves,  Weight  of  Rail,  Locomotives,  Cars,  efc.  By 
HOWARD  FLEMING.  Illustrated,  8vo $i  oo 

FORSYTH.— Book   of   Designs  for  Headstones,   Mural,   and 

other  Monuments : 

Containing  78  Designs.  By  JAMES  FORSYTH.  With  an  Introduction 
by  CHARLES  BGUTELL,  M.  A.  4  to.,  cloth  .  $&  oo 


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FRANKEL— HOTTER.— A  Practical  Treatise  on  the  Manu* 

facture  of  Starch,  Glucose,  Starch-Sugar,  and  Dextrine: 
Based  on  the  German  of  LADISLAUS  VON  WAGNER,  Professor  in  the 
Royal  Technical  High  School,  Buda-Pest,  Hungary,  and  other 
authorities.  By  JULIUS  FRANKEL,  Graduate  of  the  Polytechnic 
School  of  Hanover.  Edited  by  ROBERT  HUTTER,  Chemist,  Practical 
Manufacturer  of  Starch-Sugar.  Illustrated  by  58  engravings,  cover- 
ing every  branch  of  the  subject,  including  examples  of  the  most 
Recent  and  Best  American  Machinery.  8vo.,  344  pp.  .  $3.50 

GARDNER.— The  Painter's  Encyclopaedia: 
Containing  Definitions  of  all  Important  Words  in  the  Art  of  Plain 
and  Artistic  Painting,  with  Details  of  Practice  in  Coach,  Carriage, 
Railway  Car,  House,  Sign,  and  Ornamental  Painting,  including 
Graining,  Marbling,  Staining,  Varnishing,  Polishing,  Lettering, 
Stenciling,  Gilding,  Bronzing,  etc.  By  FRANKLIN  B.  GARDNER. 
158  Illustrations.  I2ino.  427  pp #2.00 

GARDNER. — Everybody's  Paint  Book: 

A  Complete  Guide  to  the  Art  of  Outdoor  and  Indoor  Painting,  De- 
signed for  the  Special  Use  of  those  who  wish  to  do  their  own  work, 
and  consisting  of  Practical  Lessons  in  Plain  Painting,  Varnishing, 
Polishing,  Staining,  P?orr  Hanging,  Kalsomining,  etc.,  as  well  as 
Directions  for  Renovatin  j  Furniture,  and  Hints  on  Artistic  Work  for 
Home  Decoration.  38  Illustrations.  I2mc.,  183  pp.  .  £1.00 

SEE. — The  Goldsmith's  Handbook : 

Containing  full  instructions  for  the  Alloying  and  Working  of  Gold, 
including  the  Art  of  Alloying,  Melting,  Reducing,  Coloring,  Col 
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GEE. — The  Silversmith's  Handbook  : 

Containing  full  instructions  for  the  Alloying  and  Working  of  Silver, 
including  the  different  modes  of  Refining  and  Melting  the  Metal ;  its 
Solders;  the  Preparation  of  Imitation  Alloys;  Methods  of  Manipula- 
tion; Prevention  of  Waste  ;  Instructions  for  Improving  and  Finishing 
the  Surface  of  the  Work ;  together  with  other  Useful  Information  and 
Memoranda.  By  GEORGE  E.  GEE.  Illustrated.  i2mo.  $1.75 

GOTHIC  ALBUM  FOR  CABINET-MAKERS: 

Designs  for  Gothic  Furniture.     Twenty-three  plates.     Oblong  $2.00 

GRANT.— A  Handbook  on  the  Teeth  of  Gears  : 
Their  Curves,  Properties,  and  Practical  Construction.     By  GEOR<. 
B.  GRANT.     Illustrated.     Third  Edition,  enlarged.     8vo. 

GREENWOOD.— Steel  and  Iron: 

Comprising  the  Practice  and  Theory  of  the  Several  Methods  Pur- 
sued in  their  Manufacture,  and  of  their  Treatment  in  the  Rolling- 
Mills,  the  Forge,  and  the  Foundry.  By  WILLIAM  HENRY  GREEN- 
WOOD, F.  C.  S.  With  97  Diagrams,  536  pages.  I2mo.  $2.00 


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GREGORY.— Mathematics  for  Practical  Men : 

Adapted  to  the  Pursuits  of  Surveyors,  Architects,  Mechanics,  and 
Civil  Engineers.  By  OLINTHUS  GREGORY.  8vo.,  plates  $3.00 

GRISWOLD. — Railroad  Engineer's  Pocket  Companion  for  th< 

Field : 

Comprising  Rules  for  Calculating  Deflection  Distances  and  Angles, 
Tangential  Distances  and  Angles,  and  all  Necessary  Tables  for  En 
gineers;  also  the  Art  of  Levelling  from  Preliminary  Survey  to  the" 
Construction  of  Railroads,  intended  Expressly  for  the  Young  En- 
gineer,  together  with  Numerous  Valuable  Rules  and  Examples.  By 
W.  GRISWOLD.  I2mo.,  tucks  .....  $1-75 

GRUNER. — Studies  of  Blast  Furnace  Phenomena: 

By  M.  L.  GRUNER,  President  of  the  General  Council  of  Mines  o$ 
France,  and  lately  Professor  of  Metallurgy  at  the  Ecole  des  Mines. 
Translated,  with  the  author's  sanction,  with  an  Appendix,  by  L.  I). 
B.  GORDON,  F.  R.  S.  E.,  F.  G.  S.  8vo.  .  .  .  $2.50 

Hand-Book  of  Useful  Tables  for  the  Lumberman,  Farmer  and 

Mechanic : 

Containing  Accurate  Tables  of  Logs  Reduced  to  Inch  Board  Meas^ 
ure,  Plank,  Scantling  and  Timber  Measure;  Wages  and  Rent,  by 
Week  or  Month;  Capacity  of  Granaries,  Bins  and  Cisterns;  Land 
Measure,  Interest  Tables,  with  Directions  for  Finding  the  Interest  on 
any  sum  at  4,  5,  6,  7  and  8  per  cent.,  and  many  other  Useful  Tables. 
32  mo.,  boards.  186  pages  ......  .25 

HASERICK.— The  Secrets  of  the  Art  of  Dyeing  Wool,  Cotton, 

and  Linen, 

Including  Bleaching  and  Coloring  Wool  and  Cotton  Hosiery  and 
Random  Yarns.  A  Treatise  based  on  Economy  and  Practice.  By 
E.  C.  HASERICK.  Ilhistrated  by  323  Dyed  Patterns  of  the  Yami 
or  Fabrics.  8vo $7-lo 

HATS  AND  FELTING: 

A  Practical  Treatise  on  their  Manufacture.  By  a  Practical  Hatter. 
Illustrated  by  Drawings  of  Machinery,  etc.  8vo.  .  .  $1.25 

HOFFER. — A    Practical   Treatise   on   Caoutchouc  and   Guita 

Percha, 

Comprising  the  Properties  of  the  Raw  Materials,  and  the  manner  or 
Mixing  and  Working  them ;  with  the  Fabrication  of  Vulcanized  and 
Hard  Rubbers,  Caoutchouc  and  Gutta  Petcha  Compositions>  Water- 
proof Substances,  Elastic  Tissues,  the  Utilization  of  Waste,  etc.,  etc, 
From  the  German  of  RAIMUND  HOFFER.  By  W.  T.  BRANNT. 
Illustrated  I2mo.  .  $2.50 

HAUPT.— Street  Railway  Motors: 

With  Descriptions  and  Cost  of  Plants  and  Operation  of  the  Various 
Systems  now  in  Use.  121110.  .....  $1-75 


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HAUPT— RHAWN.— A  Move  for  Better  Roads: 

Essays  on  Road-making  and  Maintenance  and  Road  Laws,  for 
which  Prizes  or  Honorable  Mention  were  Awarded  through  the 
University  of  Pennsylvania  by  a  Committee  of  Citizens  of  Philadel- 
phia, with  a  Synopsis  of  other  Contributions  and  a  Review  by  the 
Secretary,  LEWIS  M.  HAUPT,  A.  M.,  C.  E.;  also  an  Introduction  by 
WILLIAM  H.  RHAWN,  Chairman  of  the  Committee.  319  pages. 
8vo. $2.00 

HUGHES. — American  Miller  and  Millwright's  Assistant: 
By  WILLIAM  CARTER  HUGHES.    I2mo $1.50 

HULME. — Worked  Examination  Questions  in  Plane  Gecmet 

rical  Drawing : 

For  the  Use  of  Candidates  for  the  Royal  Military  Academy,  Wool- 
wich; the  Royal  Military  College,  Sandhurst ;  the  Indian  Civil  En- 
gineering College,  Cooper's  Hill ;  Indian  Public  Works  and  Tele- 
graph Departments ;  Royal  Marine  Light  Infantry  ;  the  Oxford  and 
Cambridge  Local  Examinations,  etc.  By  F.  EDWARD  HULME,  F.  L. 
S.,  F.  S.  A.,  Art-Master  Marlborough  College.  Illustrated  by  300 
examples.  Small  quartc $2.50 

JERVIS.— Railroad  Property: 

A  Treatise  on  the  Construction  and  Management  of  Railways; 
designed  to  afford  useful  knowledge,  in  the  popular  style,  to  the 
holders  of  this  class  of  property ;  as  well  as  Railway  Managers,  Offi- 
cers, and  Agents.  By  JOHN  B.  JERVIS,  late  Civil  Engineer  of  the 
Hudson  River  Railroad,  Croton  Aqueduct,  etc.  i2mo.,  cloth  $2.oc 

KEENE.— A  Hand-Book  of  Practical  Gauging: 

For  the  Use  of  Beginners,  to  which  is  added  a  Chapter  on  Distilla 
tion,  describing  the  process  in  operation  at  the  Custom-House  for 
ascertaining  the  Strength  of  Wines.  By  JAMES  B.  KEENE,  of  H.  M. 
Customs.  8vo.  .....•••  Si. 25 

KELLEY.— Speeches,  Addresses,  and  Letters  on  Industrial  and 

Financial  Questions : 
By  HON.  WILLIAM  D.  KELLEY,  M.  C.     544  pages,  8vo.  .        £2.50 

KELLOGG.— A  New  Monetary  System  : 

The  only  means  of  Securing  the  respective  Rights  of  Labor  ^  and 
Property,  and  of  Protecting  the  Public  from  Financial  Revulsions. 
By  EDWARD  KELLOGG.  Revised  from  his  work  on  "Labor  anc 
other  Capital."  With  numerous  additions  from  his  mnni^cript. 
Edited  by  MARY  KELLOGG  PUTNAM.  Fifth  edition.  To  which  v 
added  a  Biographical  Sketch  of  the  Author.  One  volume,  I2mo. 

Paper  cover !'^ 

Bound  in  cloth 

KEMLO.— Watch-Repairer's  Hand-Book : 
Beina  a  Complete  Guide  to  the  Young  Beginner,  in  Taking  Apart 
Putting  Together,  and  Thoroughly  Cleaning  the  English  Lever  and 
other  Foreign  Watches,  and  all  American  Watches.     By  F.  K.EML< 
Practical  Watchmaker.     With  Illustrations.     I2ma 


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KENTISH. — A  Treatise  on  a  Box  of  Instruments, 

And  the  Slide  Rule ;  with  the  Theory  of  Trigonometry  and  Log* 
rithms,  including  Practical  Geometry,  Surveying,  Measuring  of  Tim- 
ber, Cask  and  Malt  Gauging,  Heights,  and  Distances.  By  THOMAS 
KENTISH.  In  one  volume.  I2mo.  ....  $1.2 

KERL.— The  Assayer's  Manual: 

An  Abridged  Treatise  on  the  Docimastic  Examination  of  Ores,  and 
Furnace  and  other  Artificial  Products.  By  BRUNO  KERL,  Professor 
in  the  Royal  School  of  Mines.  Translated  from  the  German  by 
WILLIAM  T.  BRANNT.  Second  American  edition,  edited  with  Ex- 
tensive Additions  by  F.  LYNWOOD  GARRISON,  Member  of  the 
American  Institute  of  Mining  Engineers,  etc.  Illustrated  by  87  en- 
gravings. 8vo &3-OC 

KICK.— Flour  Manufacture. 

A  Treatise  on  Milling  Science  and  Practice.  By  FREDERICK  KICK 
Imperial  Regierungsrath,  Professor  of  Mechanical  Technology  in  tht 
imperial  German  Polytechnic  Institute,  Prague.  Translated  from 
the  second  enlarged  and  revised  edition  with  supplement  by  H.  H. 
P.  POWLES,  Assoc.  Memb.  Institution  of  Civil  Engineers.  Illustrated 
with  28  Plates,  and  167  Wood-cuts.  367  pages.  8vo.  .  $10.00 
KINGZETT. — The  History,  Products,  and  Processes  of  the 

Alkali  Trade  : 

Including  the  most  Recent  Improvements.     By  CHARLES  THOMAS 
KINGZETT,  Consulting  Chemist.    With  23  illustrations.    8vo.       $2.50 
KIRK.— The  Founding  of  Metals : 

A  Practical  Treatise  on  the  Melting  of  Iron,  with  a  Description  of  the 
Founding  of  Alloys;  also,  of  all  the  Metals  and  Mineral  Substances 
used  in  the  Art  of  Founding.  Collected  from  original  sources.  B> 
EDWARD  KIRK,  Practical  Foundryman  and  Chemist.  Illustrated. 

Third  edition.     8vo.  . $2.50 

LANDRIN.— A  Treatise  on  Steel : 

Comprising  its  Theory,  Metallurgy,  Properties,  Practical  Working, 
and  Use.  By  M.  H.  C.  LANDRIN,  JR.,  Civil  Engineer.  Translated 
from  the  French,  with  Notes,  by  A.  A.  FESQUET,  Chemist  and  En 
gineer.  With  an  Appendix  on  the  Bessemer  and  the  Martin  Pro- 
reuses  for  Manufacturing  Steel,  from  the  Report  of  Abram  S.  Hewitt^ 
United  States  Commissioner  to  the  Universal  Exposition,  Paris,  1867* 

I2mo $3-00 

LANGBEIN.— A  Complete  Treatise  on  the  Electro-Deposition 

of  Metals : 

Translated  from  the  German,  with  Additions,  by  WM.  T.  BRANNT. 
125  illustrations.  8vo $4.00 

LARDNER.— The  Steam-Engine : 

For  the  Use  of  Beginners.     Illustrated.     I2mo.    ...         75 

LEHNER.— The  Manufacture  of  Ink: 

Comprising  the  Raw  Materials,  and  the  Preparation  of  Waiting, 
Copying  and  Hektograph  Inks,  Safety  Inks,  Ink  Extracts  and  Pow- 
ders, etc.  Translated  from  the  German  of  SIGMUND  LEHNER,  with 
additions  by  WILLIAM  T.  BRANNT.  Illustrated.  I2mo.  #2.00 


HENRY   CARE\    BAIRD   &   CO.'S   CATALOGUE.        17 

LARKIN. — The  Practical  Brass  and  Iron  Founder's  Guide? 
A  Concise  Treatise  on  Brass  Founding,  Moulding,  the  Metals  and 
their  Alloys,  etc.;  to  wnich  are  added  Recent  Improvements  in  the 
Manufacture  of  Iron,  Steel  by  the  Bessemer  Process,  etc.,  etc.  Ily 
JAMES  LARKIN,  late  Conductor  of  the  Brass  Foundry  Department  is 
Reany,  Neafie  &  Co.'s  Penn  Works,  Philadelphia.  New  edition, 
revised,  with  extensive  additions.  I2mo.  .  .  .  $2.50 

LEROUX.— A    Practical     Treatise     on    the    Manufacture    of 

Worsteds  and  Carded  Yarns  : 

Comprising  Practical  Mechanics,  with  Rules  and  Calculations  applied 
to  Spinning;  Sorting,  Cleaning,  and  Scouring  Wools;  the  English 
and  French  Methods  of  Combing,  Drawing,  and  Spinning  Worsteds, 
and  Manufacturing  Carded  Yarns.  Translated  from  the  French  of 
CHARLES  LEROUX,  Mechanical  Engineer  and  Superintendent  of  a 
Spinning-Mill,  by  HORATIO  PAINE,  M.  D.,  and  A.  A.  FESQUET, 
Chemist  and  Engineer.  Illustrated  by  twelve  large  Plates.  To  which 
is  added  an  Appendix,  containing  Extracts  from  the  Reports  of  the 
International  Jury,  and  of  the  Artisans  selected  by  the  Committee 
appointed  by  the  Council  of  the  Society  of  Arts,  London,  on  Woolen 
and  Worsted  Machinery  and  Fabrics,  as  exhibited  in  the  Paris  UnU 
versal  Exposition,  1867.  8vo.  $5.00 

LEFFEL. — The  Construction  of  Mill-Dams  : 
Comprising  also  the  Building  of  Race  and  Reservoir  Embankments 
and  Head-Gates,  the   Measurement  of  Streams,  Gauging  of  Water 
Supply,  etc.     By  JAMES  LEFFEL  &  Co.    Illustrated  by  58  engravings. 
8vo. $2.50 

LESLIE.— Complete  Cookery: 

Directions  for  Cookery  in  its  Various  Branches.  By  Miss  LESI.IK. 
Sixtieth  thousand.  Thoroughly  revised,  with  the  addition  of  New 
Receipts.  I2mo.  .  .  5i-5° 

LE  VAN. — The  Steam  Engine  and  the  Indicator : 

Their  Origin  and  Progressive  Development ;  including  the  Most 
Recent  Examples  of  Steam  and  Gas  Motors,  together  with  the  Indi- 
cator, its  Principles,  its  Utility,  and  its  Application.  By  WILLIAM 
BARNET  LE  VAN.  Illustrated  by  205  Engravings,  chiefly  of  Indi- 
cator-Cards.  469  pp.  8vo $4.00 

LIEBER.— Assayer's  Guide  : 

Or,  Practical  Directions  to  Assayers,  Miners,  and  Smelters,  for  the 
Tests  and  Assays,  by  Heat  and  by  Wet  Processes,  for  the  Ores  of  al! 
the  principal  Metals,  of  Gold  and  Silver  Coins  and  Alloys,  and  of 
Coal,  etc.  By  OSCAR  M.  LIEBER.  Revised.  283  pp.  12111...  51.50 

JLockwood's  Dictionary  of  Terms  :  . 

Used  in  the  Practice  of  Mechanical  Engineering,  erfibraring  thosi 
Current  in  the  Drawing  Office,  Pattern  Shop,  Foundry,  Fitting,  Turn- 
'na,  Smith's  and  Boiler  Shops,  etc.,  etc.,  comprising  upwards  of  Six 
Thousand  Definitions.  Edited  by  a  Foreman  Pattern  Maker,  author 
i4  «  Pattern  Making."  41?  PP-  I2mo-  •  '  '  *3'°° 


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LUKiN.— Amongst  Machines: 

Embracing  Descriptions  of  the  various  Mechanical  Appliances  used 
in  the  Manufacture  of  Wood,  Metal,  and  other  Substances.  *2mo. 

n-w 

LUKIN. — The  Boy  Engineers: 

What  They  Did,  and  How  They  Did  It.     With  30  plates.     l8mo. 

$1-75 

LUKIN.— The  Young  Mechanic  : 

Practical  Carpentry.  Containing  Directions  for  the  Use  of  all  kinds 
of  Tools,  and  for  Construction  of  Steam- Engines  and  Mechanical 
Models,  including  the  Art  of  Turning  in  Wood  and  Metal.  By  JOHN 
LUKIN,  Author  of  "The  Lathe  and  Its  Uses,"  etc.  Illustrated. 

•I2IP.O. #1-75 

MAIN  and  BROWN. — Questions  on  Subjects  Connected  with 

the  Marine  Steam-Engine : 

And  Examination  Papers;  with  Hints  for  their  Solution.  By 
THOMAS  J.  MAIN,  Professor  of  Mathematics,  Royal  ""Maval  College, 
and  THOMAS  BROWN,  Chief  Engineer,  R.  N.  I2mo.,  cloth  .  $1.00 

MAIN  and  BROWN. — The  Indicator  and  Dynamometer: 
With  their  Practical  Applications  to  the  Steam-Engine.     By  THOMAS 
J.  MAIN,    M.  A.   F.  R.,   Ass't    S.    Professor    Royal   Naval   College, 
Portsmouth,  and  THOMAS  BROWN,  Assoc.  Inst.  C.  E.,  Chief  Engineer 
R.  N.,  attached  to  the  R.  N.  College.     Illustrated.     8vo.  .         $1.00 

MAIN  and  BROWN.— The  Marine  Steam-Engine. 

By  THOMAS  J.  MAIN,  F.  R.  Ass't  S.  Mathematical  Professor  at  the 
Royal  Naval  College,  Portsmouth,  and  THOMAS  BROWN,  Assoc. 
Inst.  C.  E.,  Chief  Engineer  R.  N.  Attached  to  the  Royal  Naval 
College.  With  numerous  illustrations.  8vo. 

MAKINS.— A  Manual  of  Metallurgy: 

By  GEORGE  HOGARTH  MAKINS.  100  engravings.  Second  edition 
rewritten  and  much  enlarged.  I2mo.,  592  pages  .  .  $3-OG 

MARTIN.— Screw-Cutting  Tables,  for  the  Use  of  Mechanical 

Engineers  : 

Showing  the  Proper  Arrangement  of  Wheels  for  Cutting  the  Threads 
of  Screws  of  any  Required  Pitch;  with  a  Table  for  Making  the  Uni- 
versal Gas- Pipe  Thread  and  Taps.  By  W.  A.  MARTIN,  Engineer. 
8vo. .  50 

MICHELL.— Mine  Drainage : 

Being  a  Complete  and  Practical  Treatise  on  Direct-Acting  Under 
ground  Steam  Pumping  Machinery.  With  a  Description  of  a  large 
number  of  the  best  known  Engines,  their  General  Utility  and  the 
Special  Sphere  of  their  Action,  the  Mode  of  their  Application,  and 
their  Merits  compared  with  other  Pumping  Machinery.  By  STEPHEN 
MICHELL.  Illustrated  by  137  engravings.  8vo.,  277  pages  .  $6.00 

MOLES  WORTH. —Pocket- Book    of    Useful     Formulae     and 

Memoranda  for  Civil  and  Mechanical  Engineers. 
By  GUILFORD  L.  MOLESWORTH,  Member  of  the  Institution  of  Civil 
Engineers,  Chief  Resident   Engineer  of  the  Ceylon  Railway.     Full- 
bounrl  in   Pocket-book  form       .          .          .          •          -  $l,Gt 


rtENRY  CAREY  BAIRD  &  CO.-W  CATALOGUE.         J9 

MOORE.— The  Universal  Assistant  and  the  Complete  Me- 
chanic : 

Containing  over  one  million  Industrial  Facts,  Calculations,  Receipts, 
Processes,  Trades  Secrets,  Rules,  Business  Forms,  Legal  Items,  Ktc., 
in  every  occupation,  from  the  Household  to  the  Manufactory.  Bf 
R.  MOORE.  Illustrated  by  500  Engravings.  I2mo.  .  $2.50 

MORRIS. — Easy  Rules  for  the  Measurement  of  Earthworks  : 
By  means  of  the  Prismoidal  Formula.  Illustrated  with  Numerous 
Wood-Cuts,  Problems,  and  Examples,  and  concluded  by  an  Exten- 
sive Table  for  finding  the  Solidity  in  cubic  yards  from  Mean  Areas. 
The  whole  being  adapted  for  convenient  use  by  Engineers,  Surveyors, 
Contractors,  and  others  needing  Correct  Measurements  of  Earthwork. 
By  ELWOOD  MORRIS,  C.  E.  8vo $1.50 

MAUCHLINE.— The  Mine  Foreman's  Hand-Book 

Of  Practical  and  Theoretical  Information  on  the  Opening,  Venti- 
lating, and  Working  of  Collieries.  Questions  and  Answers  on  Prac- 
tical and  Theoretical  Coal  Mining.  Designed  to  Assist  Students  and 
Others  in  Parsing  Examinations  for  Mine  Foremanships.  By 
ROBERT  MAUCHLINE,  Ex-Inspector  of  Mines.  A  New,  Revised  and 
Enlarged  Edition.  Illustrated  by  114  engravings.  8vo.  337 
pages $3-75 

NAPIER. — A  System  of  Chemistry  Applied  to  Dyeing. 

By  JAMES  NAPIER,  F.  C.  S.  A  New  and  Thoroughly  Revised  Edi- 
tion. Completely  brought  up  to  the  present  state  of  the  Science, 
including  the  Chemistry  of  Coal  Tar  Colors,  by  A.  A.  FESQUET, 
Chemist  and  Engineer.  With  an  Appendix  on  Dyeing  and  Calico 
Printing,  as  shown  at  the  Universal  Exposition,  Paris,  1867.  Illus- 
trated. 8vo.  422  pages $3-5° 

NEVILLE.— Hydraulic  Tables,  Coefficients,  and  Formula,  for 
finding  the  Discharge  of  Water  from  Orifices,  Notches, 
Weirs,  Pipes,  and  Rivers  : 

Third  Edition,  with  Additions,  consisting  of  New  Formulae  for  the 
Discharge  from  Tidal  and  Flood  Sluices  and  Siphons;  general  infor- 
mation on  Rainfall,  Catchment-Basins,  Drainage,  Sewerage,  Water 
Supply  for  Towns  and  Mill  Power.  By  JOHN  NEVILLE,  C.  L.  M  R 
I.  A. ;  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Geological  Society  of  Ireland.  Thick 
I2ino 15-5° 

NEWBERY.— Gleanings     from     Ornamental     Art    of    every 

style : 

Drawn  from  Examples  in  the  British,  South  Kensington,  Indian, 
Crystal  Palace,  and  other  Museums,  the  Exhibitions  of  1851  and 
1862,  and  the  best  English  and  Foreign  works.  In. a  series  of  100 
exquisitely  drawn  Plates,  containing  many  hundred  examples.  By 
ROBERT  NEWBERY.  410.  ....  •  #12.50 

NICHOLLS.  —The  Theoretical  and  Practical  Boiler-Maker  and 

Engineer's  Reference  Book: 

Containing  a  variety  of  Useful  Information  for  Employers  of  Laboc 
Foremen  and  Working  Boiler-Makers.  Iron,  Copper,  and  Tinsmith* 


20        HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD  &  CO.'S  CATALOGUE. 

Draughtsmen,  Engineers,  the  General  Steam-using  Public,  and  for  th« 
Use  of  Science  Schools  and  Classes.  By  SAMUEL  NICHOLLS.  Illus. 
trated  by  sixteen  plates,  I2mo.  .....  $2.50 

NICHOLSON.— A  Manual  of  the  Art  of  Bookbinding : 

Containing  full  instructions  in  the  different  Branches  of  Forwarding, 
Gilding,  and  Finishing.  Also,  the  Art  of  Marbling  Book-edges  and 
Paper.  By  JAMES  B.  NICHOLSON.  Illustrated.  I2mo.,  cloth  $2.25 

NICOLLS.— The  Railway  Builder: 

A  Hand-Book  for  Estimating  the  Probable  Cost  of  American  Rail* 
way  Construction  and  Equipment.  By  WILLIAM  J.  NICOLLS,  Civil 
Engineer.  Illustrated,  full  bound,  pocket-book  form  .  $2.00 

NORMANDY. — The  Commercial  Handbook  of  Chemical  An- 
alysis : 

Or  Practical  Instructions  for  the  Determination  of  the  Intrinsic  01 
Commercial  Value  of  Substances  used  in  Manufactures,  in  Trades, 
and  in  the  Arts.  By  A.  NORMANDY.  New  Edition,  Enlarged,  and 
to  a  great  extent  rewritten.  By  HENRY  M.  NOAD,  Ph.D.,  F.R.S., 
thick  I2mo $5.00 

NORRIS. — A  Handbook  for  Locomotive   Engineers  and  Ma- 
chinists : 

Comprising  the  Proportions  and  Calculations  for  Constructing  Loco- 
motives; Manner  of  Setting  Valves;  Tables  cf  Squares,  Cubes,  Areas, 
etc.,  etc.  By  SEPTIMUS  NORRIS,  M.  E.  New  edition.  Illustrated, 

12010. $1.50 

NYSTRGM. — A  New  Treatise  on  Elements  of  Mechanics : 

Establishing  Strict  Precision  in  the  Meaning  of  Dynamical  Terms : 
accompanied  with  an  Appendix  on  Duodenal  Arithmetic  and  Me- 
trology. By  JOHN  W.  NYSTROM,  C.  E.  Illustrated.  8vo.  $2.00 

NYSTROM. — On  Technological  Education  and  the  Construc- 
tion of  Ships  and  Screw  Propellers : 

For  Naval  and  Marine  Engineers.  By  JOHN  W.  NYSTROM,  late 
Acting  Chief  Engineer,  U.  S.  N.  Second  edition,  revised,  with  addi- 
tional matter.  Illustrated  by  seven  engravings.  I2mo.  .  $1.50 

O'NEILL. — A  Dictionary  of  Dyeing  and  Calico  Printing: 

Containing  a  brief  account  of  all  the  Substances  and  Processes  in 
use  in  the  Art  of  Dyeing  and  Printing  Textile  Fabrics  ;  with  Practical 
Receipts  and  Scientific  Information.  By  CHARLES  O'NEILL,  Analy- 
tical Chemist.  To  which  is  added  an  Essay  on  Coal  Tar  Colors  and 
their  application  to  Dyeing  and  Calico  Printing.  By  A.  A.  FESQUET; 
Chemist  and  Engineer.  With  an  appendix  on  Dyeing  and  Calico 
Printing,  as  shown  at  the  Universal  Exposition,  Paris,  1867-  8vo. 
491  pages  •  .  $3.50 

ORTON. — Underground  Treasures-. 

How  and  Where  to  Find  Them.  A  Key  for  the  Ready  Determination 
of  ail  the  Useful  Minerals  within  the  United  States.  By  JAMES 
ORTON,  A.M.,  Late"  Professor  of  Natural  History  in  Vassar  College, 
>J.  Y.;  Cor.  Mem.  of  the  Academy  of  Natural  Sciences,  Philadelphia, 
and  of  the  Lyceum  of  Natural  History,  New  York ;  author  of  the 
"  Andes  and  the  Amazon,"  etc.  A  New  Edition,  with  Additions. 
Illustrated  .  r  l.» 


HENRY  CAREY  BAlRD   &  CO.'S   CATALOGUE.       21 

OSBORN.— The  Prospector's  Field  Book  and  Guide : 

In  the  Search  for  and  the  Easy  Determination  of  Ores  and  Other 
Useful  Minerals.  By  Prof.  H.  S.  OSBORN,  LL.  D.,  Author  of 
"The  Metallurgy  of  Iron  and  Steel;"  "A  Practical  Manual  of 
Minerals,  Mines,  and  Mining."  Illustrated  by  44  Engravings. 
I2mo #1.50 

OSBORN. — A  Practical  Manual  of  Minerals,  Mines  and  Min- 
ing: 

Comprising  the  Physical  Properties,  Geologic  Positions,  Local  Occur- 
rence and  Associations  of  the  Useful  Minerals;  their  Methods  of 
Chemical  Analysis  and  Assay :  together  with  Various  Systems  of 
Excavating  and  Timbering,  Brick  and  Masonry  Work,  during  Driv- 
ing, Lining,  Bracing  and  other  Operations,  etc.  By  Prof.  II.  S. 
OSBORN,  LL.  D.,  Author  of  the  "  Metallurgy  of  Iron  and  Steel.'1 
Illustrated  by  171  engravings  from  original  drawings.  8vo.  $4.50 

O  VERM  AN.— Thu  Manufacture  of  Steel : 

Containing  the  Practice  and  Principles  of  Working  and  Making  Steel. 
A  Handbook  for  Blacksmiths  and  Workers  in  Steel  and  Iron,  Wagon 
Makers,  Die  Sinkers,  Cutlers,  and  Manufacturers  of  Files  and  Hard- 
ware, of  Steel  and  Iron,  and  for  Men  of  Science  and  Art.  By 
FREDERICK  OVERMAN,  Mining  Engineer,  Author  of  the  "  Manu- 
facture of  I*on,"  etc.  A  new,  enlarged,  and  revised  Edition.  By 
A.  A.  FESQL^T,  Chemist  and  Engineer.  I2mo.  .  .  $1.50 

OVERMAN.— The  Moulder's  and  Founder's  Pocket  Guide  : 
A  Treatise  or*  Moulding  and  Founding  in  Green-sand,  Dry-sand,  Loam, 
and  Cement;  the  Moulding  of  Machine  Frames,  Mill-gear,  Hollow- 
ware,  Ornaments,  Trinkets,  Bells,  and  Statues;  Description  of  Moulds 
for  Iron,  Bronze,  Brass,  and  other  Metals;  Plaster  of  Paris,  Sulphur, 
Wax,  etc. ;  the  Construction  of  Melting  Furnaces,  the  Melting  and 
Founding  of  Metals  ;  the  Composition  of  Alloys  and  their  Nature, 
etc.,  etc.  By  FREDERICK  OVERMAN,  M.  E.  A  new  Edition,  to 
which  is  added  a  Supplement  on  Statuary  and  Ornamental  Moulding, 
Ordnance,  Malleable  Iron  Castings,  etc.  By  A.  A.  FESQUET,  Chem- 
ist and  Engineer.  Illustrated  by  44  engravings.  I2mo.  .  $2.OO[ 

PAINTER,  GILDER,  AND  VARNISHER'S  COMPANION:' 
Containing  Rules  and  Regulations  in  everything  relating  to  the  AriJ 
of  Painting,  Gilding,  Varnishing,  Glass-Staining,  Graining,  Marbling, 
Sign-Writing,  Gilding  on  Glass,  and  Coach  Painting  and  Varnishing; 
Tests  for  the  Detection  of  Adulterations  in  Oils,  Colors,  etc.;  and  a 
Statement  of  the  Diseases  to  which  Painters  are  peculiarly  liable,  with 
the  Simplest  and  Best  Remedies.  Sixteenth  Edition.  Revised,  willi 
an  Appendix.  Containing  Colors  and  Coloring— Theoretical  ano 
Practical.  Comprising  descriptions  of  a  great  variety  of  Additional 
Pigments,  their  Qualities  and  Uses,  to  which  are  added,  Dryers,  and 
Modes  and  Operations  of  Painting,  etc.  Together  with  Chevreul'f 
Principles  of  Harmony  and  Contrast  of  Colors.  I2mo.  Cloth  $1.5* 

*>ALXETT.— The  Miller's,  Millwright's,  and  Engineer's  Guide. 
By  HENRY  PALLETT.  Illustrated.  i2mo.  .  .  • 


HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD  &  CO.'S  CATALOGUE. 


PERCY. — The  Manufacture  of  Russian  Sheet-Iron. 

By  JOHN  PERCY,  M.  D.,  F.  R.  S.,  Lecturer  on  Metallurgy  at  the 
Royal  School  of  Mines,  and  to  The  Advance  Class  of  Artillery 
Officers  at  the  Royal  Artillery  Institution,  Woolwich;  Author  of 
"Metallurgy."  With  Illustrations.  8vo.,  paper  .  .  50  cts. 

PERKINS.— Gas  and  Ventilation  : 

Practical  Treatise  on  Gas  and  Ventilation.  With  Special  Relation 
to  Illuminating,  Heating,  and  Cooking  by  Gas.  Including  Scientiric 
Helps  to  Engineer-students  and  others.  With  Illustrated  Diagrams, 
By  E.  E.  PERKINS.  i2mo.,  cloth #1.25 

PERKINS  AND  STOWE.— A  New  Guide  to  the  Sheet-iron 

and  Boiler  Plate  Roller  : 

Containing  a  Series  of  Tables  showing  the  Weight  of  Slabs  and  Piles 
to  Produce  Boiler  Plates,  and  of  the  Weight  of  Piles  and  the  Sizes  of 
Bars  to  produce  Sheet-iron ;  the  Thickness  of  the  Bar  Gauga 
in  decimals ;  the  Weight  per  foot,  and  the  Thickness  on  the  Bar  or 
Wire  Gauge  of  the  fractional  parts  of  an  inch;  the  Weight  per 
sheet,  and  the  Thickness  on  the  Wire  Gauge  of  Sheet-iron  of  various 
dimensions  to  weigh  112  Ibs.  per  bundle;  and  the  conversion  of 
Short  Weight  into  Long  Weight,  and  Long  Weight  into  Short. 
Estimated  and  collected  by  G.  H.  PERKINS  and  J.  G.  STOWE.  $2.501 

POWELI — CHANCE— HARRISC— The    Principles  of   Glass 

Making. 

By  HARRY  J.  POWELL,  B.  A.  Together  with  Treatises  on  Crown  and 
Sheet  Glass;  by  HENRY  CHANCE,  M.  A.  And  Plate  Glass,  by  H. 
G.  HARRIS,  Asso.  M.  Inst.  C.  E.  Illustrated  i8mo.  .  $1.50 

PROCTOR. — A  Pocket-Book  of  Useful  Tables  and  Formulae 

for  Marine  Engineers : 

By  FRANK  PROCTOR.  Second  Edition,  Revised  and  Enlarged. 
Full -bound  pocket-book  form  ......  $1.50 

REGNAULT. — Elements  of  Chemistry: 

By  M.  V.  REGNAULT.  Translated  from  the  French  by  T.  FORREST 
BETTON,  M.  D.,  and  edited,  with  Notes,  by  JAMES  C.  BOOTH,  Melter 
and  Refiner  U.  S.  Mint,  and  WILLIAM  L.  FABER,  Metallurgist  and 
Mining  Engineer.  Illustrated  by  nearly  700  wood-engravings.  Com- 
prising nearly  1,500  pages.  In  two  volumes,  8vo.,  cloth  .  $7.50 

RICHARDS. — Aluminium  : 

Its  History,  Occurrence,  Properties,  Metallurgy  and  Applications, 
including  its  Alloys.  By  JOSEPH  W.  RICHARDS,  A.  C.,  Chemist  and 
Practical  Metallurgist,  Member  of  the  Deutsche  Chemische  Gesell- 
schaft.  Illustrated  .  $5.00 

RIFFAULT,  VERGNAUD,  and  TOUSSAINT.— A  Practical 

Treatise  on  the  Manufacture  of  Colors  for  Painting : 
Comprising  the  Origin,  Definition,  and  Classification  of  Colors;  the 
Treatment  of  the  Raw  Materials ;  the  best  Formulae  and  the  Newest 
Processes  for  the  Preparation  of  every  description  of  Pigment,  and 
the  Necessary  Apparatus  and  Directions  for  its  Use;  Dryers;  th» 
Testing,  Application,  and  Qualities  of  Paints,  etc.,  etc.  By  MM. 
RIFFAULT,  VERGNAUD,  and  TOUSSAINT.  Revised  and  Edited  by  M. 


HENRY  CAREY   BAiRD  &  CO.  S  CATALOG'?!*;. 


F.   MALEPEYRK.    Translated  from  the  French,  by  A.  A. 
Chemist  and  Engineer.     Illustrated  by  Eighty  engravings.     ! 
vol.,  8vo.,  659  pages          .         .         .         .         .         .         .         $•/  50 

ROPER.— A  Catechism  of  High- Pressure,  or  Non-Condensing 
Steam-Engines  : 

Including  the  Modelling,  Constructing,  and  Management  of  Steam- 
Engines  and  Steam  Boilers.  With  valuable  illustrations.  By  STE- 
PHEN ROPER.  Engineer.  Sixteenth  edition,  revised  and  enlarged. 
i8mo.,  tucks,  gilt  edge $2.00 

ROPER. — Engineer's  Handy-Book: 

Containing  a  full  Explanation  of  the  Steam-Engine  Indicator,  and  its 
Use  and  Advantages  to  Engineers  and  Steam  Users.  With  Formula 
for  Estimating  the  Power  of  all  Classes  of  Steam-Engines ;  als^. 
Facts,  Figures,  Questions,  and  Tables  for  Engineers  who  wish  to 
qualify  themselves  for  the  United  States  Navy,  the  Revenue  Service, 
the  Mercantile  Marine,  or  to  take  charge  of  the  Better  Class  of  Sta- 
tionary Steam-Engines.  Sixth  edition.  i6mo..  690  pages,  tucks,, 
gilt  edge .  $3.50 

ROPER. — Hand-Book  of  Land  and  Marine  Engines  : 
Including  the  Modelling,  Construction,   Running,  and   Management 
of  Lanr1  and  Marine  Engines  and  Boilers.     With  illustrations.      By 
STEPHEN  ROPER,  Engineer.    Sixth  edition.     i2mo.,trcWs,  gilt  edge. 

#3-5° 
ROPER.— Hand-Book  of  the  Locomotive  : 

Including  the  Construction  of  Engines  and  Boilers,  and  the  Construc- 
tion, Management,  and  Running  of  Locomotives.  By  STEPHEN 
ROPER.  Eleventh  edition.  i8mo.,  tucks,  gilt  edge  .  £2.50 

ROPER. — Hand-Book  of  Modern  Steam  Fi-e- Engines. 

With  illustrations.  By  STEPHEN  ROPER,  Engineer.  Fourth  edition, 
I2mo.,  tucks,  gilt  edge #3-5° 

ROPER. — Questions  and  Answers  for  Engineers. 

This   little   book  contains  all   the  Questions  that  Engineers  will   l>e 
asked  when  undergoing  an  Examination  for  the  purpose  of  procuring 
Licenses,  and  they  are  so  plain  that  any  Engineer  or  Fireman  of  or 
dinary  intelligence  may  commit  them  to  memory  in  a  short  time.      l>y 
STEPHEN  ROPER,  Engineer.     Third  edition  .         .         £j  oo 

ROPER. — Use  and  Abuse  of  the  Steam  Boiler. 

By  STEPHEN  ROPER,  Engineer.  Eighth  edition,  with  frustrations. 
l8mo.,  tucks,  gilt  edge #2.00 

ROSE. — The  Complete  Practical  Machinist : 

Embracing  Lathe  Work,  Vise  Work,  Drills  and  Drilling,  Taps  :md 
Dies,  Hardening  and  Tempering,  the  Making  and  Use  of  'i\»ol% 
Tool  Grinding,  Marking  out  Work,  etc.  By  JOSHUA  ROSE.  IIlusJ 
trated  by  356  engravings.  Thirteenth  edition,  thoroughly  reviseT 
and  in  great  part  rewritten.  In  one  vol.,  I2mo.,  439  pages  $2.$<? 

ROSE.— Mechanical  Drawing  Self-Taught: 
Comprising  Instructions  in  the  Selection  and  Preparation  of  Drawing 
Instruments,  Elementary  Instruction  in   Practical    Mechanical   Draw 


24         HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD  &  CO.'S  CATALOGUE. 

ing,  together  with  Examples  in  Simple  Geometry  and  Elementary 
Mechanism,  including  Screw  Threads,  Gear  Wheels,  Mechanical 
Motions,  Engines  and  Boilers.  By  JOSHUA  ROSE,  M.  E.  Illustrated 
by  330  engravings.  8vo  ,  313  pages  ....  $4.00 

ROSE.— The  Slide- Valve  Practically  Explained: 

Embracing  simple  and  complete  Practical  Demonstrations  of  th, 
operation  of  each  element  in  a  Slide-valve  Movement,  and  illustrat- 
ing the  effects  of  Variations  in  their  Proportions  by  examples  care, 
fully  selected  from  the  most  recent  and  successful  practice.  By 
JOSHUA  ROSE,  M.  E.  Illustrated  by  35  engravings  .  $1.00 

ROSS. — The  Blowpipe  in  Chemistry,  Mineralogy  and  Geology: 
Containing  all  Known  Methods  of  Anhydrous  Analysis,  many  Work- 
ing Examples,  and  Instructions  for  Making  Apparatus.  By  LiEUT.- 
COLONEL  W.  A.  Ross,  R.  A.,  F.  G.  S.  With  120  Illustrations. 
I2mo $2.0O 

SHAW.— Civil  Architecture : 

Being  a  Complete  Theoretical  and  Practical  System  of  Building,  con. 
tnining  the  Fundamental  Principles  of  the  Art.  By  EDWARD  SHAW, 
Architect.  To  which  is  added  a  Treatise  on  Gothic  Architecture,  etc. 
By  THOMAS  W.  SILI.OWAY  and  GEORGE  M.  HARDING,  Architects. 
The  whole  illustrated  by  102  quarto  plates  finely  engraved  on  copper. 
Eleventh  edition.  410.  .......  $10.00 

SHUNK.— A  Practical  Treatise  on  Railway  Curves  and  Loca- 
tion, for  Young  Engineers. 

By  W.  F.  SHUNK,  C.  E.  121110.  Full  bound  pocket-book  form  $2.00 
SLATER.— The  Manual  of  Colors  and  Dye  Wares. 

By  J.  W.  SLATER.     i2mo.        ......         $3.00 

SLOAN. — American  Houses  : 

A  variety  of  Original  Designs  for  Rural  Buildings.  Illustrated  by 
26  colored  engravings,  with  descriptive  references.  By  SAMUEL 
SLOAN,  Architect.  8vo.  .  .  .  .  .  .  $1.50 

SLOAN. — Homestead  Architecture  : 

Containing  Forty  Designs  for  Villas,  Cottages,  and  Farm-houses,  with 
Essays  on  Stylw,  Construction,  Landscape  Gardening,  Furniture,  etc., 
etc.  Illustrated  by  upwards  of  200  engravings.  By  SAMEKEL  SLOAN, 
Architect.  8vo.  ...  ....  $3.50 

BLOANE.—  Ho.r«e  Experiments  m  Science. 

By  T.  O'CoNOR  SLC\NE,  E.  M.,  A.M.,  Ph.D.  Illustrated  by  91 
engravings.  I2mo.  .......  $1.50 

SMEATON.— Builder's  Pockt^Companion : 

Containing  the  Elements  of  Building,  Surveying,  and  Architecture; 
with  Practical  Rules  and  Instructions  corrected  with  the  subject. 
By  A.  C.  SMEATON,  Civil  Engineer,  etc.  I2mo.  .  .  $1.50 

SMITH. — A  Manual  of  Political  Economy. 

By  E.  PESHINE  SMITH.  A  New  Edition,  to  which  is  added  a  full 
Index.  I2mo $i  25 


HENRY  CAREY  BAlRD  &  CO.'S  CATALOGUE.          25 


SMITH. — Parks  and  Pleasure  -  Grounds : 

Or  Practical  Notes  on  Country  Residences,  Villas,  Public  Parks,  And 
Gardens.  By  CHARLES  H.  J.  SMITH,  Landscape  Gardener'  and 
Garden  Architect,  etc.,  etc.  I2mo.  ....  $2.00 

SMITH. — The  Dyer's  Instructor  : 

Comprising  Practical  Instructions  in  the  Art  of  Dyeing  Silk,  Cotton, 
Wool,  and  Worsted,  and  Woolen  Goods ;  containing  nearly  800 
Receipts.  To  which  is  added  a  Treatise  on  the  Art  of  Padding;  and 
the  Printing  of  Silk  Warps,  Skeins,  and  Handkerchiefs,  and  the 
various  Mordants  and  Colors  for  the  different  styles  of  such  work. 
By  DAVID  SMITH,  Pattern  Dyer.  i2mo.  .  .  .  $2.00 

SMYTH. — A  Rudimentary  Treatise  on  Coal  and  Coal-Mining. 
By  WARRINGTON  W.  SMYTH,  M.  A.,  F.  R.  G.,  President  R.  G.  S. 
of  Cornwall.  Fifth  edition,  revised  and  corrected.  With  numer- 
ous illustrations.  I2mo.  ......  $1-75 

SNIVELY. — Tables  for  Systematic  Qualitative  Chemical  AnaK 

ysis. 
By  JOHN  H.  SNIVELY,  Phr.  D.     8vo.        ....        $1.00 

SNIVELY.— The  Elements  of  Systematic  Qualitative  chemical 

Analysis : 

A  Hand-book  for  Beginners.    By  JOHN  H.  SNIVELY,  Phr.  D.    i6mo. 

$2.00 

STOKES.— The  Cabinet  Maker  and  Upholsterer's  Companion: 
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ing  Wood,  Ivory,  Bone,  Tortoise-Shell,  etc.  Directions  for  Lacker- 
ing, Japanning,  and  Varnishing;  to  make  French  Polish,  Glues, 
Cements,  and  Compos:..i<-ns;  with  numerous  Receipts,  useful  to  work 
men  generally.  Bv  STOKES.  Illustrated.  A  New  Edition,  with 
an  Appendix  upor  /ench  Polishing,  Staining,  Imitating,  Varnishing, 
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STRENGTH  AND  OTHER  PROPERTIES  OF  METALS; 
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SULLIVAN. — Protection  to  Native  Industry. 
By  Sir  EDWARD  SULLIVAN,  Baronet,  author  of  "  Ten  Chapters  on 
Social  Reforms."     8vo *i.oo 

SULZ. — A  Treatise  on  Beverages : 

Or  the  Complete  Practical  Bottler.  Full  instructions  for  Laboratory 
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26         HENRY  CAREY  BAIRto  &  CO.'S  CATALOGUE.  % 

SYME. — Outlines  of  an  Industrial  Science. 

By  DAVID  SYME.     I2mo.  .  ...         $2.ots 

TABLES      SHOWING     THE     WEIGHT      OF     ROUND, 
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TAYLOR.— Statistics  of  Coal : 

Including  Mineral  Bituminous  Substances  employed  in  Arts  and 
Manufactures;  with  their  Geographical,  Geological,  and  Commercial 
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facture. By  R.  C.  TAYLOR.  Second  edition,  revised  by  S.  S.  HALDE- 
MAN.  Illustrated  by  five  Maps  and  many  wood  engravings.  8vo., 
cloth .  #10.00 

TEMPLETON. — The  Practical  Examinator  on  Steam  and  the 

Steam -Engine : 

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THAUSING.— The  Theory  and  Practice  of  the  Preparation  of 

Malt  and  the  Fabrication  of  Beer: 

With  especial  reference  to  the  Vienna  Process  of  Brewing.  Elab- 
orated from  personal  experience  by  JULIUS  E.  THAUSING,  Professor 
at  the  School  for  Brewers,  and  at  the  Agricultural  Institute,  Modling, 
near  Vienna.  Translated  from  the  German  by  WILLIAM  T.  BRANNT, 
Thoroughly  and  elaborately  edited,  with  much  American  mutter,  and 
according  to  the  latest  and  most  Scientific  Practice,  by  A.  SCHWARZ 
and  DR.  A.  H.  BAUER.  Illustrated  by  140  Engravings.  8vo.,  815 
pages  ..........  $10.00 

THOMAS. — The  Modern  Practice  of  Photography: 

By  R.  W.  THOMAS,  F.  C.  S.    8vo.  ....  25 

THOMPSON.— Political  Economy.     With  Especial  Reference 

to  the  Industrial  History  of  Nations  : 

By  ROBERT  E.  THOMPSON,  M.  A.,  Professor  of  Social  Science  in  the 
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THOMSON. — Freight  Charges  Calculator: 

By  ANDREW  THOMSON,  Freight  Agent.     2q.mo.         .         .         $1.25 

TURNER'S  (THE)  COMPANION: 

Containing  Instructions  in  Concentric,  Elliptic,  and  Eccentric  Turn, 
ing;  also  various  Plates  of  Chucks,  Tools,  and  Instruments;  and 
Directions  for  using  the  Eccentric  Cutter,  Drill,  Vertical  Cutter,  and 
Circular  Rest;  with  Patterns  and  Instructions  for  working  them 
I2mo. $1.25 

TURNING  :   Specimens  of  Fancy  Turning   Executed  on  the 

Hand  or  Foot- Lathe  : 

With  Geometric,  Oval,  and  Eccentric  Chucks,  and  Elliptical  Cutting 
Frame.  By  an  Amateur.  Illustrated  by  30  exquisite  Photographs. 
4to.  ......  .  ...  $3.00 


HENRY  CAREY  BAIRB  &  CO.'S  CATALOGUE.  27 

VAILE.— Galvanized- Iron  Cornice-Worker's  Manual: 

Containing  Instructions  in  Laying  out  the  Different  Mitres,  ami 
Making  Patterns  for  all  kinds  of  Plain  and  Circular  Work.  Also, 
Tables  of  Weights,  Areas  and  Circumferences  of  Circles,  and  other 
Matter  calculated  to  Benefit  the  Trade.  By  CHARLES  A.  VAILK. 
Illustrated  by  twenty-one  plates.  410.  ...  $c  oo 

VILLE. — On  Artificial  Manures  : 

Their  Chemical  Selection  and  Scientific  Application  to  Agriculture. 
A  series  of  Lectures  given  at  the  Experimental  Farm  at  Vincennes, 
during  1867  and  1874-75.  By  M.  GEORGES  VILLE.  Translated  and 
Edited  by  WILLIAM  CROOKES,  F.  R.  S.  Illustrated  by  thirty-one 
engravings.  8vo.,  450  pages $6.00 

VILLE. — The  School  of  Chemical  Manures  : 
Or,  Elementary  Principles  in  the  Use  of  Fertilizing  Agents.     From 
the  French  of  M.  GEO.  VILLE,  by  A.  A.  FESQUET,  Chemist  and  En- 
gineer.    With  Illustrations.     I2mo.  ....         11.25 

VOGDES. — The  Architect's  and  Builder's  Pocket -Companion 

and  Price-Book : 

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decimals, Geometry  and  Mensuration  ;  with  Tables  of  United  States 
Measures,  Sizes,  Weights,  Strengths,  etc.,  of  Iron,  Wood,  Stone, 
Brick,  Cement  and  Concretes,  Quantities  of  Materials  in  given  Sizes 
and  Dimensions  of  Wood,  Brick  and  Stone;  and  full  and  complete 
Bills  of  Prices  for  Carpenter's  Work  and  Painting ;  also,  Rules  for 
Computing  and  Valuing  Brick  and  Brick  Work,  Stone  Work,  Paint- 
ing, Plastering,  with  a  Vocabulary  of  Technical  Terms,  etc.  By 
FRANK  W.  VOGDES,  Architect,  Indianapolis,  Ind.  Enlarged,  revised, 
and  corrected.  In  one  volume,  368  pages,  full-bound,  pocket-book 

form,  gilt  edges          .         . $2.00 

Cloth         .  1.50 

VAN  CLEVE.— The  English  and  American  Mechanic  : 

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and  Tables,  designed  for  the  Use  of  every  Mechanic  and  Manufac- 
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WAHNSCHAFFE.— A  Guide  to  the  Scientific  Examination 

of  Soils: 

Comprising  Select  Methods  of  Mechanical  and  Chemical  Analyst 
and  Physical  Investigation.  Translated  from  the  German  of  Dr.  F» 
WAHNSCHAFFE.  With  additions  by  WILLIAM  T.  BRANNT.  Illus- 
trated by  25  engravings.  121110.  177  pages  .  .  .  $1-5° 

WALL.— Practical  Graining : 

With  Descriptions  of  Colors  Employed  and  Tools  Used.  Illustrated 
by  47  Colored  Plates,  Representing  the  Various  Woods  Used  K 
Interior  Finishing.  By  WILLIAM  E.  WALL.  8vo.  .  £2.5* 

WALTON.— Coal-Mining  Described  and  Illustrated: 

By  THOMAS  H.  WALTON,  Mining  Engineer.  Illustrated  by  24  .'argl 
and  elaborate  Plates,  after  Actual  Workings  and* Apparatus.  $5.04 


28         HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD  &  CO.'S  CATALOGUE. 


.  —  The  Sugar  Beet. 
Including  a  History  of  the  Beet  Sugar  Industry  in  Europe,  Varietier 
of  the  Sugar  Beet,  Examination,  Soils,  Tillage,  Seeds  and  Sowing, 
Yield  and  Cost  of  Cultivation,  Harvesting,  Transportation,  Conserva 
tion,  Feeding  Qualities  of  the  Beet  and  of  the  Pulp,  etc.  By  LEWIJ 
S.  WARE,  C.  E.,  M.  E.  Illustrated  by  ninety  engravings.  8vo. 

$4.04 
WARN.—  The  Sheet-Metal  Worker's  Instructor: 

For  Zinc,  Sheet-  Iron,  Copper,  and  Tin-  Plate  Workers,  etc.  Contain- 
ing a  selection  of  Geometrical  Problems  ;  also,  Practical  and  Simple 
Rules  for  Describing  the  various  Patterns  required  in  the  different 
branches  of  the  above  Trades.  By  REUBEN  H.  WARN,  Practical 
Tin-Plate  Worker.  To  which  is  added  an  Appendix,  containing 
Instructions  for  Boiler-Making,  Mensuration  of  Surfaces  and  Solids, 
Rules  for  Calculating  the  Weights  of  different  Figures  of  Iron  and 
Steel,  Tables  of  the  Weights  of  Iron,  Steel,  etc.  Illustrated  by  thirty- 
two  Plates  and  thirty-seven  Wood  Engravings.  8vo.  .  $3-OC 

WARNER.  —  New  Theorems,  Tables,  and  Diagrams,  for  the 
Computation  of  Earth-work  : 

Designed  for  the  use  of  Engineers  in  Preliminary  and  Final  Estimates 
of  Students  in  Engineering,  and  of  Contractors  and  other  non-profes- 
sional Computers.  In  two  parts,  with  an  Appendix.  Part  I.  A  Prac- 
tical Treatise;  Part  II.  A  Theoretical  Treatise,  and  the  Appendix. 
Containing  Notes  to  the  Rules  and  Examples  of  Part  I.;  Explana- 
tions of  the  Construction  of  Scales,  Tables,  and  Diagrams,  and  a 
Treatise  upon  Equival-ent  Square  Bases  and  Equivalent  Level  Heights. 
The  whole  illustrated  by  numerous  original  engravings,  comprising 
explanatory  cuts  for  Definitions  and  Problems,  Stereometric  Scales 
and  Diagrams,  and  a  series  of  Lithographic  Drawings  from  Models; 
Showing  all  the  Combinations  of  Solid  Forms  which  occur  in  Railroad 
Excavations  and  Embankments.  By  JOHN  WARNER,  A.  M.,  Mining 
and  Mechanical  Engineer.  Illustrated  by  14  Plates.  A  new,  revised 
and  improved  edition.  8vo.  ......  $4.00 

WATSON.—  A  Manual  of  the  Hand-Lathe  : 

Comprising  Concise  Directions  for  Working  Metals  of  all  kinds, 
Ivory,  Bone  and  Precious  Woods;  Dyeing,  Coloring,  and  French 
Polishing;  Inlaying  by  Veneers,  and  various  methods  practised  to 
produce  Elaborate  work  with  Dispatch,  and  at  Small  Expense.  Bjr 
EGBERT  P.  WATSON,  Author  of  "  The  Modern  Practice  of  American 
Machinists  and  Engineers."  Illustrated  by  78  engravings.  $1.50 

WATSON.  —  The  Modern  Practice  of  American  Machinists  and 

Engineers 

Including  the  Construction,  Application,  and  Use  of  Drills,  Lathe 
Tools,  Cutters  for  Boring  Cylinders,  and  Hollow-work  generally  ,  with 
the  most  Economical  Speed  for  the  same  ;  the  Results  verified  by 
Actual  Practice  at  the  Lathe,  the  Vise,  and  on  the  Floor.  Together 


HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD  &  CO.'S  CATALOGUE.          2q 

with  Work«l*op  Management,  Economy  of  Manufacture,  the  Steam 
Engine,  Boilers,  Gears,  Belting,  etc.,  etc.  By  EGBERT  P.  WATSON. 
Illustrated  by  eighty-six  engravings.  I2mo.  .  «2  co 

WATSON.— The  Theory  and  Practice  of  the  Art  of  Weavine 

by  Hand  and  Power  • 

With  Calculations  and  Tables  for  the  Use  of  those  connected  with  the 
Trade.  By  JOHN  WATSON,  Manufacturer  and  Practical  Machine- 
Maker.  Illustrated  by  large  Drawings  of  the  best  Power  Looms. 
8vo-  •  •  $6.00 

W  ATT.— The  Art  of  Soap  Making : 

A  Practical  Hand-book  of  the  Manufacture  of  Hard  and  Soft  Soaps, 
Toilet  Soaps,  etc.,  including  many  New  Processes,  and  a  Chapter  on 
the  Recovery  of  Glycerine  from  Waste  Leys.  By  ALEXANDER 
WATT.  111.  i2mo.  . $3.00 

WE ATHERLY.— Treatise  on  the  Art  of  Boiling  Sugar,  Crys- 

tailizing,  Lozenge-making,  Comfits,  Gum  Goods, 
And  other  processes  for  Confectionery,  etc.,  in  which  are  explained, 
in  an  easy  and  familiar  manner,  the  various  Methods  of  Manufactur. 
ing  every  Description  of  Raw  and  Refined  Sugar  Goods,  as  sold  by 
Confectioners  and  others.     I2mo $1.50 

W1GHTWICK.— Hints  to  Young  Architects: 
Comprising  Advice  to  those  who,  while  yet  at  school,  are  destined 
to  the  Proiession;  to  such  as,  having  passed  their  pupilage,  are  about 
to  travel ;  and  to  those  who,  having  completed  their  education,  are 
about  to  practise.  Together  with  a  Model  Specification  involvir.g  a 
great  variety  of  instructive  and  suggestive  matter.  By  GEORGB 
WIGHTWICK,  Architect.  A  new  edition,  revised  and  considerably 
enlarged ;  comprising  Treatises  on  the  Principles  of  Construction 
and  Design.  By  G.  HUSKISSON  GUILLAUME,  Architect.  Numerous 
illustrations.  One  vol.  I2mo #2.00 

W  ILL,— Tables  of  Qualitative  Chemical  Analysis. 

With  an  Introductory  Chapter  on  the  Course  of  Analysis.  By  Pro- 
fessor HEINRICH  WILL,  of  Giessen,  Germany.  Third  American, 
from  the  eleventh  German  edition.  Edited  by  CHARLES  F.  HIMFS, 
Ph.  D.,  Professor  of  Natural  Science,  Dickinson  College,  Carlisle,  Pa 
8vo.  .  $1.50 

WILLIAMS.— On  Heat  and  Steam: 

Embracing  New  Views  of  Vaporization,  Condensation,  and  Explo 
sion.  By  CHARLES  WYE  WILLIAMS,  A.  I.  C.  E.  Illustrated  8vo. 

$2.50 

WILSON. — A  Treatise  on  Steam  Boilers  : 

Their  Strength,  Construction,  and  Economical  Working.  By  ROBER! 
WILSON.  Illustrated  I2mo.  .  ...  £2.50 

WILSON. — First  Principles  of  Political  Economy: 

With  Reference  to  Statesmanship  and  the  Progress  of  Civilization. 
By  Professor  W.  D.  WILSON,  of  the  Cornell  University.  A  new  and 
revised  edition.  I2mo.  -  $'-5c 


HENRY    CAREY   BAIRD   &   CO.'S  CATALOGUE. 


WOHLER.— A  Hand-Bookof  Mineral  Analysis: 

By  F.  WOHLER,  Professor  of  Chemistry  in  the  University  of  Gottin- 
gen.  Edited  by  HENRY  B.  NASON,  Professor  of  Chemistry  in  the 
Renssalaer  Polytechnic  Institute,  Troy,  New  York.  Illustrated. 
I2mo $2.50 

WORSSAM.— On  Mechanical  Saws: 

From  the  Transactions. of  the  Society  of  Engineers,.  1869.  By  S.  W. 
WORSSAM,  JR.  Illustrated  by  eighteen  large  plates.  8vo.  £2.50 


RECENT   ADDITIONS. 

BRANNT. — Varnishes,  Lacquers,  Printing  Inks  and  Sealing  - 
Waxes : 

Their  Raw  Materials  and  their  Manufacture,  to  which  is  added  the 
Art  of  Varnishing  and  Lacquering,  including  the  Preparation  of  Put- 
ties and  of  Stains  for  Wood,  Ivory,  Bone,  Horn,  and  Leather.      By 
WILLIAM  T.  BRANNT.     Illustrated    by  39  Engravings,  338  pages, 
lamo.       ..........         $3.00 

BRANNT — The  Practical  Scourer  and  Garment  Dyer: 

Comprising  Dry  or  Chemical  Cleaning;  the  Art  of  Removing  Stains, 
Fine  Washing;  Bleaching  and  Dyeing  of  Straw  Hnts,  Gloves,  and 
Feathers  of  all  kinds;  Dyeing  of  Worn  Clothes  of  all  fabrics,  in- 
cluding Mixed  Goods,  by  One  Dip;  and  the  Manufacture  of  Soaps 
and  Fluids  for  Cleansing  Purposes.  Edited  by  WILLIAM  T.  BRANNT, 
Editor  of  "The  Techno-Chemical  Receipt  Book."  Illustrated. 
203  pages.  I2mo. $2.00 

BRANNT.— The  Metallic  Alloys: 

A  Practical  Guide  for  the  Manufacture  of  all  kinds  of  Alloys,  Amal- 
gams and  Solders  used  by  Metal  Workers,  especially  by  Bell  Founders, 
Bronze  Workers,  Tinsmiths,  Gold  and  Silver  Workers,  Dentists,  etc., 
etc.,  as  well  as  their  Chemical  and  Physical  Properties.  Edited 
chiefly  from  the  German  of  A.  Krupp  and  Andreas  Wildberger,  with 
additions  by  WM.  T.  BRANNT.  Illustrated.  i2mo.  $3.00 

BRANNT. — A  Practical  Treatise  on  the  Manufacture  of  Vine- 
gar and  Acetates,  Cider,  and  Fruit- Wines  : 
Preservation  of  Fruits  and  Vegetables  by  Canning  and  Evaporation ; 
Preparation  of  Fruit-Butters,  Jellies,  Marmalades,  Catchups,  Pickles, 
Mustards,  etc.  Edited  from  various  sources.  By  WILLIAM  T. 
BRANNT.  Illustrated  by  79  Engravings.  479  pp.  8vo.  $5.00 

BRANNT.— The  Metal  Worker's    Handy-Book   of  Receipts 
and  Processes : 

Being  a  Collection  of  Chemical  Formulas  and  Practical  Manipula- 
tions for  the  working  of  all  Metals;  including  the  Decoration  and 
Beautifying  of  Articles  Manufactured  therefrom,  as  well  as  their 
Preservation.  Edited  from  various  sources.  By  WILLIAM  T. 
BRANNT.  Illustrated.  i2mo.  $2.50 


HENRY   CAREY   BA1RD   &   CO.'S   CATALOGUE. 


DEITE.  -A  Practical  Treatise    on   the  Manufacture  cf  Per* 

fumery : 

Comprising  directions  for  making  all  kinds  of  Perfumes,  Sachet 
Powders,  Fumigating  Materials,  Dentifrices,  Cosmetics,  etc.,  with  a 
full  account  of  the  Volatile  Oils,  Balsams,  Resins,  and  other  Natural 
and  Artificial  Perfume-substances,  including  the  Manufacture  of 
Fruit  Ethers,  and  tests  of  their  purity.  By  Dr.  C.  DEITE,  assisted 
by  L.  BORCHERT,  F.  EICHBAUM,  E.  KUGLER,  H.  TOEFFNER,  and 
other  experts.  From  the  German,  by  WM.  T.  BRANNT.  28  Engrav- 
ings. 358  pages.  8vo. |3.oo 

EDWARDS. — American    Marine   Engineer,    Theoretical   and 
Practical : 

With  Examples  of  the  latest  and  most  approved  American  Practice. 
By  EMORY  EDWARDS.  85  illustrations.  i2mo.  .  .  $2.50 

EDWARDS. — 900    Examination   Questions  and   Answers: 
For  Engineers  and   Firemen   (Land  and  Marine)  who  desire  to  ob- 
tain a   United   States  Government  or  State  License.     Pocket-book 
form,  gilt  edge  .         .         ......         $1.50 

POSSELT. — Technology  of  Textile  Design : 

Being  a  Practical  Treatise  on  the  Construction  and  Application  of 
Weaves  for  all  Textile  Fabrics,  with  minute  reference  to  the  latest 
Inventions  for  Weaving.  Containing  also  an  Appendix,  showing 
the  Analysis  and  giving  the  Calculations  necessary  for  the  Manufac- 
tuie  of  the  various  Textile  Fabrics.  By  fi.  A.  POSSELT,  Head 
Master  Textile  Department,  Pennsylvania  Museum  and  School  of 
Industrial  Art,  Philadelphia,  with  over  1000  illustrations.  293 
pages.  410.  .  $5-oa 

POSSELT. — The  Jacquard  Machine  Analysed  and  Explained: 

With  an  Appendix  on  the  Preparation  of  Jacquard  Cards,  and 
Practical  Hints  to  Learners  of  Jacquard  Designing.  By  E.  A. 
POSSELT.  With  230  illustrations  and  numerous  diagrams.  127  pp. 
4to.  .  $3.00 

POSSELT.— The  Structure  of  Fibres,  Yarns  and  Fabrics: 
Being  a  Practical  Treatise  for  the  Use  of  all  Persons  Employed  in 
the  Manufacture  of  Textile  Fabrics,  containing  a  Description  of  the 
Growth  and  Manipulation  of  Cotton,  Wool,  Worsted,  Silk  Flax, 
Jute,  Ramie,  China  Grass  and  Hemp,  and  Dealing  with  all  Manu- 
facturers' Calculations  for  Every  Class  of  Material,  also  Giving 
Minute  Details  for  the  Structure  of  all  kinds  of  Textile  Fabrics,  and 
an  Appendix  of  Arithmetic,  specially  adapted  for  Textile  Purposes. 
By  E.  A.  POSSELT.  Over  400  Illustrations,  quarto.  .  $10.00 

RICH. — Artistic  Horse-Shoeing: 

A  Practical  and  Scientific  Treatise,  giving  Improved  Methods  of 
Shoeing,  with  Special  Directions  for  Shaping  Shoes  to  Cure  Different 
Diseases  of  the  Foot,  and  for  the  Correction  of  Faulty  Action  in 
Trotters.  By  GEORGE  E.  RICH.  62  Illustrations.  153  pages. 
I2nio.  #1.00 


32       HENRY   CAREY   BAIRD   &  CO.'S  CATALOGUE. 

RICHARDSON.— Practical  Blacksmithing : 

A  Collection  of  Articles  Contributed  at  Different  Times  by  Skilled 
Workmen  to  the  columns  of  "  The  Blacksmith  and  Wheelwright," 
and  Covering  nearly  the  Whole  Range  of  Blacksmithing,  from  the 
Simplest  Job  of  Work  to  some  of  the  Most  Complex  Forgings, 
Compiled  and  Edited  by  M.  T.  RICHARDSON. 

Vol.1.  210  Illustrations.  224  pages.  I2mo.  .  .  $1.00 
Vol.  II.  230  Illustrations.  262  pages.  I2mo.  .  .  $1.00 
Vol.  III.  390  Illustrations.  307  pages.  I2mo.  .  .  $1.00 
Vol.  IV.  226  Illustrations.  276  pages.  I2mo.  .  .  $1.00 

RICHARDSON.— The  Practical  Horseshoer: 

Being  a  Collection  of  Articles  on  Horseshoeing  in  all  its  Branchei 
which  have  appeared  from  time  to  time  in  the  columns  of  "  1  he 
Blacksmith  and  Wheelwright,"  etc.  Compiled  and  edited  by  M.  T. 
RICHARDSON.  174  illustrations $1.00 

ROPER. — Instructions    and    Suggestions    for   Engineers   and 

Firemen : 
By  STEPHEN   ROPER,   Engineer.     i8mo.     Morocco         .         $2.00 

ROPER. — The  Steam  Boiler:  Its  Care  and  Management: 
By  STEPHEN  ROPER,  Engineer.     I2mo.,  tuck,  gilt  edges.         $2.00 

ROPER. — The  Young  Engineer's  Own  Book : 

Containing  an  Explanation  of  the  Principle  and  Theories  on  which 
the  Steam  Engine  as  a  Prime  Mover  is  Based.  By  STEPHEN  ROPER, 
Engineer.  160  illustrations,  363  pages.  i8mo.,  tuck  .  $3.00 

ROSE. — Modern  Steam -Engines: 

An  Elementary  Treatise  upon  the  Steam-Engine,  written  in  Plain 
language ;  for  Use  in  the  Workshop  as  well  as  in  the  Drawing  Office. 
Giving  Full  Explanations  of  the  Construction  of  Modern  Stearrw 
Engines  :  Including  Diagrams  showing  their  Actual  operation.  To- 
gether with  Complete  but  Simple  Explanations  of  the  operations  of 
Various  Kinds  of  Valves,  Valve  Motions,  and  Link  Motions,  etc., 
thereby  Enabling  the  Ordinary  Engineer  to  clearly  Understand  the 
Principles  Involved  in  their  Construction  and  Use,  and  to  Plot  out 
their  Movements  upon  the  Drawing  Board.  By  JOSHUA  ROSE.  M.  E. 
Illustrated  by  422  engravings.  Revised.  358  pp.  .  .  $6.00 

ROSE. — Steam  Boilers: 

A  Practical  Treatise  on  Boiler  Construction  and  Examination,  for  the 
Use  of  Practical  Boiler  Makers,  Boiler  Users,  and  Inspectors;  and 
embracing  in  plain  figures  all  the  calculations  necessary  in  Designing 
or  Classifying  Steam  Boilers.  By  JOSHUA  ROSE,  M.  E.  Illustrated 
by  73  engravings.  250  pages.  8vo.  ....  $2.50 

SCHRIBER.— The  Complete  Carriage  and  Wagon  Painter: 
A  Concise  Compendium  of  the  Art  of  Painting  Carriages,  Wagons, 
and  Sleighs,  embracing  Full  Directions  in  all  the  Various  Branches, 
including  Lettering,  Scrolling,  Ornamenting,  Striping,  Varnishing, 
and  Coloring,  with  numerous  Recipes  for  Mixing  Colors.  73  Illus- 
trations. 177  pp.  I2mo.  .  .  .  .  .  .  1 1  ofl 


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